Large-scale mitochondrial DNA analysis unravels the global invasion patterns of Pomacea snails (Gastropoda, Caenogastropoda, Ampullariidae)
Invasive apple snails ( Pomacea spp.) have caused severe ecological and agricultural damage globally. Revealing their invasion history and genetic background is critical for effective management; however, traditional single-locus markers often provide insufficient resolution for deciphering complex dispersal routes or cryptic maternal lineage structures. Here, we conducted a comprehensive phylogeographic study by analyzing 428 complete mitochondrial genomes from China and Southeast Asia and 3,132 global COI sequences of three apple snail species, including P. canaliculata , P. maculata , and P. occulta . Mitogenomic analysis revealed a complex invasion history of P. canaliculata , and high genetic diversity was maintained in this species largely due to multiple independent introductions of three genetically divergent maternal lineages. We further resolved widespread COI haplotypes into finer geographic structure, highlighting the complexity of regional invasion and dispersal of P. canaliculata . In contrast, P. maculata in mainland China exhibited a single mitogenomic haplotype, consistent with a more restricted maternal pattern in the current dataset. Furthermore, our analysis identified that the recent outbreak of P. canaliculata in Kenya likely represents a secondary invasion event originating from Asian populations, highlighting a bridgehead effect. COI -based neutrality tests and mismatch analyses indicated that some invasive lineages experienced rapid recent population expansion, contrasting with the long-term stability of native populations. These findings provide essential genetic evidence and high-resolution resources for the global monitoring and biosecurity management of invasive apple snails.