S. Barai

Axial load and strain prediction of square FRP–concrete–steel double-skin tubular columns using machine learning and nonlinear finite element analysis

Feature importance analysis revealed that axial load (Pu) is primarily governed by FRP stiffness, steel yield strength, and concrete strength, whereas ultimate axial strain (εcu) is dominated by steel tube geometry and strength, confirming that axial load and strain are controlled by distinct governing mechanisms.