Ecotoxicological risks of insecticides: A comprehensive review of environmental behavior, exposure pathways and strategies for sustainable management

Abstract

Pesticides, including insecticides, are widely used to control pests in modern agriculture. However, a small portion of the applied insecticide reaches the intended target, while off-target losses may contaminate agricultural environments. This review focused on the fate of insecticides in the environment and strategies to reduce their ecotoxicological risks. In this context, the environmental behavior of insecticides, their pathways into the ecosystem and the ecotoxicological effects on non-target organisms, ways to reduce ecotoxicological risks are discussed. Risk-reduction options discussed include IPM, modern application technologies, development of lower-risk insecticides, nanotechnology-based formulations, and remediation. The transport, distribution, persistence, and major exposure routes of insecticides are examined collectively, and measures for minimizing contamination of surface water and groundwater are summarized. Ecotoxicological risk is affected by the physicochemical properties of the insecticide, application method, soil characteristics, and environmental conditions. Future research should prioritize current-use insecticides, acaricides, and nematicides, realistic mixture exposures, and sustainable management strategies.