Determinants of Reading Literacy and Numeracy in Indonesian Community Learning Centers (PKBM): A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

Reading and numeracy literacy remain important challenges in Indonesian Community Learning Centers (PKBM). However, studies examining literacy determinants in PKBM have remained fragmented and lack an integrated conceptual framework. This study aimed to identify and synthesize the determinants of reading and numeracy literacy in Indonesian PKBM through a Systematic Literature Review following the PRISMA guidelines. Literature was retrieved from Google Scholar, Publish or Perish, Scopus, Garuda, and Crossref databases, with the final search conducted on June 20, 2026. A total of 21 articles published between 2020 and 2026 met the inclusion criteria. The methodological quality of the included articles was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal tools before data synthesis. The findings revealed six major determinants of literacy: learner characteristics, tutor competence, learning strategies, PKBM management, learning environment, and institutional and social support. The results indicated that literacy achievement in PKBM is shaped by the interaction of individual, instructional, organizational, and environmental factors rather than by a single determinant. This study proposes the PKBM Learning Ecosystem Model, which conceptualizes reading and numeracy literacy as outcomes of interconnected relationships among learners, tutors, learning strategies, learning environments, management systems, and external support. The model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding literacy development in non-formal education and offers practical implications for strengthening literacy programs in PKBM.