Is L2 the Least Stable System? The Dynamics of VOT Trilingual Production in Polish–English–Norwegian Read and Spontaneous Speech

Abstract

This study analyses the production of voiceless and voiced plosives (/p, t, k, b, d, g/) in both read and spontaneous speech produced by L1 Polish, L2 English, L3 Norwegian multilingual learners and native control speakers. The goal is to examine whether L2/L3 learners maintain distinct phonological categories in all their languages or exhibit cross-linguistic influence, as well as to identify which voicing series and places of articulation are most susceptible to the interference. Moreover, the study seeks to integrate acoustic data with extralinguistic factors, such as proficiency, exposure, frequency of use and age of acquisition, to provide a deeper understanding of the dynamic coexistence of three phonological systems both in controlled and more authentic environments. The study reveals significant L1 and L3 influence on L2 stop production, especially in the voiced series of stops, and more target-like L1 and L3 production.