Towards Eco-Friendly Construction: A Comprehensive Review of Agricultural and Industrial Waste in Sustainable Masonry Production

Abstract

The growing focus on environmental sustainability in construction has driven advancements in the design and production of masonry materials, including bricks and concrete blocks. A major development is the incorporation of agricultural and industrial waste, such as fly ash, rice straw ash, bagasse ash, and other by-products, to reduce dependence on non-renewable resources and lower the carbon footprint of traditional manufacturing processes. This systematic review examines the potential of waste materials in masonry unit production by analysing Scopus-indexed studies published between 2015 and 2025. After screening, 30 studies were selected, covering fired bricks, unfired bricks, and concrete blocks, with emphasis on physical, mechanical, thermal, and durability properties. The findings show that industrial wastes typically improve mechanical strength through pozzolanic reactions, while agricultural wastes contribute to lower density and improved thermal insulation. However, performance depends on waste type, replacement level, and production conditions. Optimal incorporation levels are generally below 20%. Despite promising results, challenges remain, including the absence of standardised testing methods, limited durability evaluations, and insufficient evidence for large-scale industrial adoption. This review highlights current research trends and future opportunities for integrating waste materials into sustainable construction products.