Non-linear effects of technological immersion on directed attention restoration: an exploratory study across smartphone, tablet, and virtual reality interfaces

Abstract

Background While Virtual Reality (VR) is increasingly adopted for digital biophilic interventions aimed at mitigating mental fatigue, it remains unclear whether higher technological immersion linearly enhances directed attention restoration. Objectives This study investigated the restorative effects of three levels of immersion: smartphone (low), tablet (moderate) and VR headset (high), on directed attention following exposure to a nature video. Methods Ninety adults completed the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) before and after the intervention. Results While intra-group analyses provided extreme evidence for attentional restoration using a tablet (p < 0.001, BF10 = 6573) and strong evidence for VR (p = 0.003, BF10 = 12.7), the overall inter-group differentiation failed to reach strict frequentist significance (p = 0.085). However, Bayesian model comparisons revealed a non-monotonic pattern of efficacy. Crucially, while a Bayesian Repeated Measures ANOVA showed only anecdotal evidence (BFinclusion = 2.33) for a Time × Device interaction, post-hoc comparisons yielded moderate evidence for the null hypothesis when comparing the smartphone to the VR headset (BF10 = 0.215). Conclusions These data indicate that the highest level of immersion provided no restorative advantage over the lowest level, potentially due to the cognitive overhead associated with VR. These findings provide moderate evidence against a linear relationship between immersion and restoration, highlighting the need to carefully consider the biomechanical and cognitive confounds of immersive technologies.