CARBON AND ENZYME-BASED NANOBUD FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN PHARMACEUTICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Abstract
The widespread occurrence of pharmaceutical contaminants in water bodies has become a major environmental concern due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health. Conventional wastewater treatment technologies often exhibit limited efficiency in removing these emerging pollutants, creating a need for advanced and sustainable remediation approaches. This review critically examines the potential of nanobuds, particularly carbon nanotube–fullerene hybrid nanomaterials, for the removal of pharmaceutical contaminants from wastewater. Recent literature was systematically analyzed to evaluate nanobud synthesis strategies, physicochemical properties, removal mechanisms, and treatment performance. The review highlights the unique structural features of nanobuds that facilitate multiple contaminant-removal pathways, including adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, and advanced oxidation processes. Reported studies demonstrate removal efficiencies exceeding 90% for pharmaceuticals such as diclofenac, tetracycline, and ciprofloxacin. Their superior performance is attributed to synergistic interactions involving π–π stacking, hydrogen bonding, enhanced electron transfer, and reactive oxygen species generation. Compared with conventional adsorbents and other nanomaterials, nanobuds exhibit higher adsorption capacities, improved catalytic activity, and satisfactory regeneration and reuse potential. Despite these advantages, challenges related to synthesis cost, scalability, catalyst leaching, and potential environmental toxicity remain obstacles to large-scale implementation. Overall, nanobuds represent a promising multifunctional platform for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment. Future research should focus on green synthesis methods, cost-effective production, pilot-scale validation, and comprehensive environmental risk assessments to support their sustainable and safe application in water remediation technologies.