Antimicrobial nanoparticles: Present situation and future challenges

Abstract

The swift emergence of multidrug resistance across diverse microorganisms presents a major clinical obstacle for healthcare providers managing infectious diseases. In recent years, studies have concentrated on developing metal-based nanomaterials with antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal capabilities to address contagious diseases. Various metal nanomaterials, including gold, copper, silver, palladium, and metal oxides like titanium, zinc, and iron, have shown promising antimicrobial effects against multidrug-resistant pathogens. The interaction between nanoparticles and biological systems is significantly affected by their physicochemical characteristics, such as size, shape, surface charge, ligand coating, doping, pH stability, surface roughness, and crystalline structure. Upon interaction, these nanoparticles exert their antimicrobial effects through multiple mechanisms, including increased production of intracellular reactive oxygen species, damage to cell membranes, disruption of membrane potential, DNA impairment, and destabilization of biofilms through interactions with their components. A comprehensive understanding of how specific physicochemical properties of metal nanoparticles relate to their antimicrobial mechanisms remains limited. Therefore, this review article examines key aspects of various nanoparticle types commonly applied in health and medical fields, with a focus on antimicrobial chemotherapy. It explores critical factors employed by nanoparticles to achieve antibacterial effects, as well as the antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral mechanisms of metal nanoparticles.