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Separation Improves Only as the Square Root of the Length ── Doubling the Resolution Takes a Column Four Times as Long and Four Times as Much Time ── The Square Roots of Three Fields Share One Root, and Raising Selectivity Is 3.64 Times Cheaper ── [Paper 294]

Aug 2026 · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
Analytical Chemistry and Chromatography

Abstract

Chromatographic resolution goes as R_s proportional to sqrt(N) proportional to sqrt(L). This paper asks where that square root comes from──the answer is the additivity of variance. No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed. Scope of this paper (scope note): No new mathematical theorem and no new law is claimed──the resolution expression, the plate number, the van Deemter equation, the sqrt(2Dt) of diffusion, and the standard error sigma/sqrt(n) are all standard. We do not build separation science──all we use is one square root and two divisions. We do not derive the van Deemter equation──we do not enter the physical content of A, B and C. We compute only where the minimum lies. We claim no accuracy for the representative values──A=4 mum, B=12000 mum^2/s, C=0.006 s are values chosen to show the order for a typical HPLC, and they move greatly with packing, mobile phase and analyte. A peak shape is assumed──the resolution expression presumes Gaussian peaks of equal width. With tailing it does not hold. We do not treat pressure──lengthening a column raises the back pressure in proportion. In practice the pump sets the limit, but that is not treated here. We do not hide the independence behind sqrt(n)──the additivity of Section 3 assumes the contributions are independent. With correlation it is not sqrt(n). We do not say the three are “the same phenomenon”──what agrees is the structure by which variances add, not the phenomena. Relation to earlier papers: Paper 249 showed that the 4pi that catches molecules by diffusion is the same root as the 4pi by which a field spreads──this paper takes the square-root side of the same diffusion and confirms one root across three fields. Paper 112 counted “six distinct roots sharing one rhyme”──this paper is the case where both rhyme and root are the same, the counterpart to 112. Paper 204 showed that the power in an eigenvalue count is half the dimension──that 1/2 comes from the dimension, whereas the 1/2 here comes from the additivity of variance. The same 1/2, different roots. Paper 188 treated cases exactly determined by fewer measurements than unknowns──this paper is the case where adding measurements improves things only as a square root. What is added is writing the price of resolution as “the square of the improvement sought”, identifying that the square roots of three fields come from the single root of variance additivity, computing that raising selectivity is 3.64 times cheaper, and giving the van Deemter optimum numerically. First, the price is the square of the improvement sought. Doubling R_s takes 4 times the plates, 4 times the column length, and 4 times the time (Section 2). Second, this is the core of the paper. The same square root stands in three places──chromatography, diffusion, statistics──and the root is one and the same (Section 3). Third, we confirm it numerically. Summing n independent contributions multiplies the variance by n and the standard deviation by sqrt(n)──four times n halves the standard error exactly (Section 3). Fourth, selectivity is cheaper than length. Raising alpha from 1.05 to 1.10 cuts the plates required to one 3.64th (Section 4). Fifth, there is an optimal flow rate. The van Deemter minimum sits at u=sqrt(B/C)=1.4142 mm/s with H=20.97 mum (Section 5). Sixth, the separator is what is added independently. If variances are added, a square root; if expectations, first order (Section 6). Separation improves only as the square root of the length. Doubling R_s takes 4 times the plates, the column length and the time; a tenfold R_s takes 100 times──the price is the square of the improvement sought. That square root does not belong to chromatography alone──diffusion’s sqrt(2Dt) and statistics’ sigma/sqrt(n) come from the same single root. The root is the additivity of variance──summing n independent contributions multiplies the variance by n, so the standard deviation grows only as sqrt(n). Which is why the three tables of prices carry exactly the same numbers. But there is a move──merely raising alpha from 1.05 to 1.10 cuts the plates required to one 3.64th. One thing separates them──whether that variable sits inside the square root or outside it. Moving what is outside first is always cheaper. And the square root is only half bad news──it is precisely because the band width grows as a square root rather than in proportion to length that separation is possible at all. On the making of this work: The ideas and content of this work stem from the author's own considerations. Assistance from an AI (a large language model) was used for structuring, English translation, and checking the algebra. Any remaining errors or misinterpretations are solely the author's. Feedback and corrections are sincerely appreciated. ----- クロマトグラフィの分離度は R_s proportional to sqrt(N) proportional to sqrt(L) である。本稿が問うのは、この平方根がどこから来ているかである──答は、分散の加法性である。新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない。 本稿の射程(射程注記):新しい数学定理も新しい法則も主張しない──分離度の式、理論段数、ファン・デームター式、拡散の sqrt(2Dt)、標準誤差 sigma/sqrt(n) は、いずれも標準的である。分離科学を作らない──使うのは一つの平方根と、二つの割り算だけである。ファン・デームター式を導出しない──A、B、C の物理的な中身には立ち入らない。最小値の位置だけを計算する。代表値の精度を主張しない──A=4 mum、B=12000 mum^2/s、C=0.006 s は典型的な HPLC の桁を示すための値であり、充填剤・移動相・分析種で大きく動く。ピーク形状を仮定している──分離度の式はガウス型のピークで、二成分の幅が等しいことを前提とする。テーリングがあれば成り立たない。圧力を扱わない──カラムを長くすれば背圧も比例して上がる。実際の上限はポンプが決めるが、本稿は扱わない。 sqrt(n) の独立性を隠さない──第3節の加法性は寄与が独立であることを仮定する。相関があれば sqrt(n) にならない。三つが「同じ現象」だと言わない──一致するのは分散が足されるという構造であって、現象そのものではない。既刊との関係:論文249 は拡散が捕らえる 4pi が場の広がる 4pi と同じ根だと示した──本稿は同じ拡散から、今度は平方根の側を取り出し、三つの分野で同根だと確かめる。論文112 は「同じ韻を踏む六つの別根」を数えた──本稿は韻も根も同じ場合であり、112 の対照である。論文204 は固有値の数え上げのべきが次元の半分だと示した──あちらの 1/2 は次元から出るが、本稿の 1/2 は分散の加法性から出る。同じ 1/2 でも根が違う。論文188 は未知数より少ない測定で厳密に決まる場合を扱った──本稿は測定を増やしても平方根でしか良くならない場合である。加えたのは分離度の代償を「求める改善の二乗」と書いたこと、三つの分野の平方根が分散の加法性という同じ根から出ると特定したこと、選択性を上げるほうが 3.64 倍安いと計算したこと、ファン・デームターの最適点を数で出したことである。 第一に、代償は求める改善の二乗である。 R_s を 2 倍にするには段数 4 倍、カラム長 4 倍、時間 4 倍(第2節)。 第二に、これが本稿の芯である。同じ平方根がクロマトグラフィ・拡散・統計の三つの場所に立ち、根は同じ一つである(第3節)。 第三に、数で確かめる。独立な n 個を足すと分散が n 倍、標準偏差は sqrt(n) 倍──n を 4 倍で標準誤差はちょうど半分(第3節)。 第四に、長さより選択性のほうが安い。 alpha を 1.05 から 1.10 にすると、必要段数が 3.64 分の一になる(第4節)。 第五に、最適流速がある。ファン・デームター式の最小段高は u=sqrt(B/C)=1.4142 mm/s で H=20.97 mum(第5節)。 第六に、分離子は「何が独立に足されるか」である。足されるのが分散なら平方根、期待値なら一次である(第6節)。 分離は長さの平方根でしか良くならない。 R_s を 2 倍にするには段数もカラム長も時間も 4 倍、10 倍にするには 100 倍である──代償は、求める改善の二乗。その平方根はクロマトグラフィだけのものではない──拡散の sqrt(2Dt) も、統計の sigma/sqrt(n) も、同じ一つの根から出ている。根は分散の加法性である──独立な寄与を n 個足すと分散が n 倍になり、標準偏差は sqrt(n) 倍にしかならない。だから三つの代償表が完全に同じ数になる。ただし手はある──alpha を 1.05 から 1.10 に上げるだけで、必要段数は 3.64 分の一になる。分けるものは一つ──その変数が、平方根の中にいるか外にいるか。外にいる変数を先に動かすのが、常に安い。そして平方根は半分だけ悪い知らせである──バンド幅が長さに比例せず平方根でしか広がらないからこそ、分離が可能になっている。 作成にあたって:本稿の着想と内容は、著者自身の考察に基づくものです。文章の構成整理や英訳、数式の確認には AI(大規模言語モデル)の助力を得ました。最終的な内容の解釈や誤りがあれば、それらはすべて著者の責に帰します。お気づきの点があれば、ご教示いただければ幸いです。

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