3D bioprinting technologies: Current applications and emerging trends

Abstract

Three-dimensional bioprinting has rapidly advanced as a key technology in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. While many reviews provide broad overviews of bioprinting techniques and materials, this work offers a focused analysis of the interface between bioprinting technologies and bioink chemistry. It examines how deposition mechanisms—inkjet, laser-assisted, vat-polymerization, and extrusion-based systems—impose constraints on bioink viscosity, cross-linking strategies, and mechanical properties, ultimately influencing printing resolution, construct scale, and cell viability. This review is organized around three fundamental trade-offs: resolution versus construct size, printability versus biological functionality, and scalability versus cell viability. Natural, synthetic, and hybrid bioinks are evaluated not only by composition but also by their physicochemical properties and their role in directing cell fate in neural, vascular, and musculoskeletal applications. Key translational challenges are highlighted, including immunogenicity, foreign body responses, batch-to-batch variability, and the lack of reproducible, Good Manufacturing Practice–compliant manufacturing workflows. Finally, the review identifies priorities for advancing the field, including stimuli-responsive bioinks, real-time monitoring integration, artificial intelligence–assisted design, and multi-material bioprinting. These directions are essential for bridging the gap between laboratory-scale innovation and clinically viable tissue constructs.