2D Kinematic Profiles and Acute Motor Learning Strategies in Overhead Throwing Performance under Single- and Dual-Task Conditions

Abstract

Motor skill acquisition depends on learning strategies that support performance, movement organization, and adaptability under changing task demands. However, the relative effectiveness of different strategies during early learning and dual-task conditions remains insufficiently clarified. This study assessed the effects of Awareness, Non-Awareness, and the Five-Stage Learning Approach on novice overhead throwing performance under single-task and dual-task conditions. A supportive 2D kinematic analysis was also used to describe movement execution. Forty-five male university students (age 20.4 ± 2 years) voluntarily participated. Throwing accuracy was calculated as the proportion of successful hits to the center square of the target out of 10 trials and analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA within each group. The Five-Stage group showed the highest descriptive accuracy in single-task (M = 0.697, SD = 0.113) and dual-task conditions (M = 0.648, SD = 0.056), followed by the Non-Awareness group. The Awareness group showed the lowest overall accuracy. Although task-condition differences were not statistically significant, the Five-Stage and Non-Awareness groups showed moderate task-related effects. The 2D kinematic profile supported these findings, indicating more organized throwing execution in the Five-Stage group and more rigid movement in the Awareness group. These findings suggest that structured hybrid and implicit-oriented strategies may support early overhead throwing skill acquisition. Keywords: motor learning strategies; awareness; non-awareness; Five-Stage Learning Approach; overhead throw; dual-task performance; 2D kinematics