Exploring Euphorbia peplus L. (Euphorbiaceae): Traditional uses, phytochemistry and therapeutic applications: A review

Abstract

Euphorbia peplus L. (Euphorbiaceae), commonly known as petty spurge, is a cosmopolitan weed widely distributed across Iraq. Historically used in ethnomedicine, the species is recognised for the topical application of its milky latex to treat skin conditions, including warts, corns and cutaneous malignancies. Recent phytochemical profiling has identified an array of secondary metabolites, primarily complex diterpenoids, including ingenane and jatrophane esters, as well as triterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins and alkaloids. Modern research has validated these traditional applications. Beyond oncology, recent preliminary studies demonstrated the probable anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antidiabetic and antileishmanial potential. This review systematically synthesises the ethnobotanical history, phytochemical profile and clinical milestones of E. peplus by investigating literature published from 1969 to 2026. Furthermore, it highlights recent research gaps, particularly those related to toxicological potential and non-oncological mechanisms and summarises future directions for standardised pharmaceutical formulation.