Dysfunctional leadership as a dynamic and relational process

Abstract

The focal article by Ducheyne and De Fruyt (2026) calls for a clear conceptual distinction between toxic and incompetent leadership, proposing that these categories can guide research and practice by reducing ambiguity. Although we agree that this differentiation offers useful conceptual clarity, we contend that it becomes unstable in its application. Dysfunctional leadership unfolds through both temporal fluctuation in leader behavior and relational variation in follower appraisal. These intertwined processes suggest that the same leader may appear toxic in one moment and merely incompetent in another, depending on shifting behavioral cues and the relational context in which followers interpret them. From this perspective, dysfunctional leadership is not a fixed category but an emergent pattern shaped by ongoing leader – follower dynamics. We propose that dysfunctional leadership is best understood as a dynamic, episodic, and relational process. Leaders move across behavioral patterns over time as stress, resource depletion, situational triggers, and relationship quality evolve. Followers, in turn, make sense of these behaviors through their own goals, emotions, and relationships with the leader, producing variable interpretations of the same actions. Because both leader behavior and follower appraisal fluctuate, a static distinction between toxic and incompetent leadership risks obscuring how dysfunctional leadership actually develops and is experienced. Although Ducheyne and De Fruyt ’ s distinction provides a valuable starting point, a more comprehensive understanding requires attention to within-person variability and the relational appraisals that shape organizational life.