Equalizers and populists: usage trends on Facebook, Instagram, TikTok and X during the 2023 election in Spain

Abstract

This study examines the political communication strategies employed by Spanish parties on social media during the 2023 general election campaign. The objective is to identify usage patterns and to assess the equalizing or normalizing role of these platforms, with particular attention to personalization, populism, and user interaction. Adopting a quantitative approach, the study analyzes the distribution and engagement metrics of 4,458 messages published by parties and candidates on Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and X during the four weeks preceding election day. The analysis focuses on the official accounts of political parties (PP, PSOE, Vox, and Sumar) and their leading candidates (Alberto Núñez Feijóo, Pedro Sánchez, Santiago Abascal, and Yolanda Díaz) who obtained more than 3% of the vote. The results confirm an equalizing function of social media platforms, as emerging political actors lead in terms of activity levels and follower counts. The digital campaign is primarily concentrated on X, followed by Facebook and Instagram to a lesser extent. TikTok is the least used platform and features only candidates from newer political parties. Populist actors are the most active, the most followed, and receive the highest number of likes. The findings also reveal a clear dominance of newer platforms (Instagram and TikTok), where political actors’ posts obtain higher levels of user engagement. These insights contribute to understanding current trends in political communication on social media in Spain, within a continuously evolving social, political, and technological environment.