A Systematic Review of the Short and Long Term Effects of PM2.5 and PM10 Exposure on Respiratory Morbidity and Mortality in Jakarta

Abstract

Particulate air pollution represents a persistent public health challenge, particularly in densely populated urban settings. Jakarta experiences particulate matter concentrations that frequently exceed recommended air quality standards, raising concerns about their potential effects on respiratory health. However, locally available evidence on the respiratory consequences of particulate matter exposure remains scattered across studies with varying designs and outcomes. This review synthesized the available evidence on the associations between PM2.5 and PM10 exposure and respiratory morbidity and mortality among populations in Jakarta and the Greater Jakarta area. Relevant studies published between 2015 and 2025 were identified through systematic searches of PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Observational and ecological studies examining ambient or indoor PM2.5 and/or PM10 exposure in relation to respiratory health outcomes were considered eligible. Information on study characteristics, exposure assessment, respiratory outcomes, effect estimates, and statistical significance was extracted and synthesized. Six studies met the eligibility criteria. Across the included evidence, PM2.5 exposure showed relatively consistent associations with adverse respiratory outcomes, including acute respiratory infections, pneumonia, asthma-related outcomes, and mortality. One study reported that a 50 µg/m3 increase in long-term PM2.5 exposure was associated with an 11.9% increase in COVID-19 mortality. In comparison, findings for PM10 were less consistent, with several analyses reporting weak or statistically non-significant associations. Differences in study design, exposure assessment, and outcome definitions further limited direct comparison across studies. Overall, the available evidence indicates that particulate matter, particularly PM2.5, is an important environmental concern for respiratory health in Jakarta. The limited and heterogeneous evidence for PM10 highlights the need for further investigation. Future research using longitudinal designs and individual-level exposure assessment is needed to better characterize exposure–response relationships and strengthen the evidence base for air quality management and respiratory disease prevention.