“This is how we talk”: Code-switching, language fluency, and cultural identity among Cantonese–English bilinguals

Abstract

Code-switching (CS), alternation between two languages, is pervasive yet complex among bilinguals. Variationist work examines community-level patterns, while sociocultural approaches emphasize its role in constructing social meaning and negotiating identity. This study examines how fluency and cultural identity shape CS among Cantonese–English bilinguals and how different identities and their interrelationships relate to CS frequency, directionality, and social meaning across communities sharing the same two languages. Conversational speech from 41 Cantonese–English bilinguals across three diasporic communities was analyzed. Data include a map task eliciting spontaneous CS and sociolinguistic interviews on language use and identity. Participants also completed language and cultural identity questionnaires. A total of 36 hours and 17 minutes were transcribed. Map-task switches were coded by frequency and grammatical category with regression analyses; CS patterns were analyzed qualitatively alongside questionnaire and interview data. Higher Cantonese fluency predicted lower overall CS frequency and fewer switches into English, whereas English fluency was not a significant predictor. Stronger Chinese identity and weaker American identity were associated with higher overall CS frequency and more switching into English. Hybrid identity style was associated with increased switching into Cantonese, the marked direction, whereas alternating identity style showed a marginal positive association with overall CS. Qualitatively, bilinguals with hybrid identities exhibited greater CS flexibility across grammatical categories. This study integrates quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine how fluency, cultural identity dimensions, and perceived identity relationships relate to naturalistic CS. It is among the first to operationalize multiple identity dimensions across diasporic communities sharing the same languages. The CS reflects both language regulation and the social meanings attached to identity dimensions and their perceived relationships. Cultural identity and CS are not linearly related, highlighting the need to integrate cognitive and sociocultural factors in bilingual practice.