Zero-dimensional anodes across monovalent and multivalent batteries: a critical review of interfacial dynamics, bottlenecks, and solutions

Abstract

The shift towards sustainable energy sources has created an urgent demand for advanced battery systems that can overcome the limitations of conventional anodes. High-capacity candidates such as phosphorus, tin, and silicon-based anodes suffer from poor cyclic stability and severe volume expansion. Higher-dimensional structures such as 1D nanowires, 2D sheets and 3D frameworks may offer high capacity but often suffer from limited scalability, poor structural stability and sluggish kinetics. In contrast, zero-dimensional (0D) nanomaterials provide a unique structural advantage for ion storage. Their exceptionally high surface-to-volume ratio, coupled with quantum confinement effects, shortens diffusion pathways, enhances ion diffusion, improves electrochemical kinetics, and buffers mechanical stress. This review directly compares 0D anode materials across six battery chemistries (lithium-, sodium-, potassium-, magnesium-, aluminum- and zinc-ion systems) with non-0D anode materials in terms of capacity, cycling stability and rate performance, and evaluates them critically. In addition to reporting results, we identify the trade-offs common to 0D architectures across the six systems, namely the balance between capacity gains and first-cycle SEI losses, nanoparticle agglomeration, and synthesis costs that hinder scalability. We emphasize that the evidence does not support a universal advantage of 0D architectures; rather, the benefits depend on the storage mechanism, matrix integration, and the specific failure mode being addressed. We believe that the main remaining challenge is not capacity optimization alone but resolving these trade-offs, which is essential for moving 0D anodes from laboratory demonstrations to commercial batteries.