Instructional Quality, Student Engagement, and Skill Development as Predictors of Learning Outcomes in Online Physical Education: A Structural Equation Model of Senior High School Learners

Abstract

The rapid shift to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic raised critical questions about the effectiveness of digital instruction in subjects that are inherently physical and experiential. This study modeled the relationships among instructional quality, student engagement, physical activity and skill development, and learning outcomes in online physical education (PE) among senior high school students in the Philippines using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Four latent constructs were examined: Instructional Quality (IQ), Student Engagement (SE), Physical Activity and Skill Development (PASD), and Learning Outcomes in Physical Education (LOPE). A cross-sectional survey was administered to 171 students drawn from two private schools in southern Metro Manila and Cavite Province. Most participants learned through a synchronous platform, with asynchronous delivery serving a supplementary role; the findings therefore characterize online PE as actually experienced by this cohort rather than a controlled comparison of the two modalities. Data were analyzed through reliability analysis, bivariate correlations, and covariance-based SEM with maximum likelihood estimation using semopy in Python. All four constructs demonstrated strong internal consistency and convergent validity, and discriminant validity was satisfied. The model showed acceptable fit (χ²/df = 2.142, CFI = 0.923, TLI = 0.911, RMSEA = 0.082) and explained 95.9% of the variance in learning outcomes. All six hypothesized paths were statistically significant, with instructional quality emerging as the strongest antecedent of student engagement and student engagement as the strongest antecedent of skill development. Notably, although the structural relationships were uniformly strong, students rated their overall learning outcomes in online PE as low in absolute terms, indicating that a well-specified instructional model does not by itself overcome the constraints of delivering embodied learning through a screen. Findings carry implications for curriculum design and digital pedagogy in blended and online PE.