Water management and sustainability in groundwater-based irrigation cooperatives: evidence from Türkiye

Abstract

Groundwater irrigation cooperatives (GWICs) play a critical role in agricultural water management in regions where surface water resources are limited. This study evaluates the structural characteristics, management practices, irrigation performance, and major operational challenges of GWICs in Türkiye. The analysis was based on survey data from 110 cooperatives in 28 provinces and descriptive statistical methods. The total irrigable area covered by the cooperatives amounts to 73,467 ha, of which 55,272 ha is actively irrigated, corresponding to an irrigation ratio of 75.2%. Pressurized irrigation systems account for 95.3% of the irrigated area, indicating a high level of technological modernization. Water measurement systems are used by 75.5% of the cooperatives. Water pricing is predominantly time-based, with 75.5% of cooperatives applying hourly tariffs, reflecting the importance of energy costs in groundwater-dependent systems. High energy costs (90.9%), insufficient water resources (54.5%), and infrastructure-related problems (40.9%) were identified as the main constraints affecting sustainability. The findings indicate increasing pressure from groundwater depletion, rising operational costs, and climate-related water stress. Strengthening groundwater monitoring, expanding measurement-based management, improving energy efficiency, and enhancing institutional capacity are essential for long-term sustainability. The study provides empirical evidence for improving groundwater governance, irrigation management, and climate change adaptation in Türkiye.