Agroecological farming in Nepal’s mid-hills: a scoping review of practices, productivity, resilience, and livelihood outcomes

Abstract

Agriculture remains the primary livelihood for rural households in Nepal’s mid-hills, where steep terrain, fragile soils, limited irrigation, and increasing climate variability create challenges for smallholder farming systems. Agroecological farming applies ecological processes, crop diversification, and local knowledge to improve resource management and strengthen farming system resilience. This study maps evidence on agroecological practices in Nepal’s mid-hills, examining reported outcomes related to crop production, soil health, climate resilience, and smallholder livelihoods while identifying research gaps. The review followed the Arksey and O’Malley framework. Peer-reviewed articles, government reports, and publications from international organizations published between 2000 and 2024 were systematically searched across academic databases and institutional repositories. Of 1,450 records identified, 34 studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed using descriptive statistics and inductive thematic analysis. Findings indicate that practices including mixed cropping, legume intercropping, composting, mulching, terracing, agroforestry, organic pest management, and local seed preservation are associated with improved soil conditions, resource conservation, diversified production systems, and enhanced climate adaptation capacity. Agroforestry and diversified farming systems were linked with greater biodiversity and additional livelihood opportunities. Farmer field schools and community seed banks facilitated knowledge sharing and promoted the uptake of agroecological practices. However, implementation was constrained by labor requirements, limited training opportunities, restricted access to inputs, and weak extension services. Existing evidence is largely based on short-term studies with limited comparison between agroecological and conventional farming systems. Agroecological approaches show promise for strengthening mid-hill farming systems; however, broader implementation will require institutional support, supportive policies, and long-term research addressing social and ecological dimensions.