Profile-Free Behavioral Characterization of Bot-like Activity in a Political Reply Ecosystem on X: A Case Study

Abstract

Coordinated and bot-like activity on social media is usually studied with supervised detectors that need rich account data such as profiles, timelines, and follower networks, which is increasingly hard to obtain. We ask what can be established about a single account’s reply ecosystem from its publicly visible posts and replies alone, with no profiles, timelines, or follower data. In a case study of the reply ecosystem of an official political party account (23,953 replies by 1985 accounts, December 2025 to January 2026), we compute profile-free behavioral features covering text duplication, character-level entropy, timing regularity, reply latency, and post coverage, complemented by a co-commenting network analysis, and group active accounts with unsupervised density-based clustering. The clustering, combined with two transparent labeling rules, separates three behavioral tiers: templated amplifiers defined by text reuse, persistent responders with human-like text but extreme volume and coverage, and an organic remainder. The two non-organic tiers comprise 5.4% of accounts, yet produce 53.5% of all comments, a composition that is stable under resampling and threshold sensitivity analysis, with a failure mode that is only conservative, since over-strict settings leave a tier unassigned rather than reshaping it. The platform’s own spam flags, never used as input, rise steadily from organic accounts to templated amplifiers, consistent with the behavioral grouping.