Influence of Participatory Extension Approaches on Adoption of Climate-smart Technologies in Green Gram Farming in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya

Abstract

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offers a critical pathway for enhancing resilience, productivity, and sustainability in smallholder farming systems, particularly in semi-arid regions that are highly vulnerable to climate change. Despite its potential, CSA adoption rates remain persistently low in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya, where green gram yields have declined from a potential 1,500 kg/ha to 560 kg/ha. This study examined the influence of selected participatory extension approaches on CSA adoption among 388 smallholder green gram farmers. Guided by Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations Theory and Rational Choice Theory, a cross-sectional survey was conducted across Nkondi, Chiakariga, and Marimanti wards using cluster sampling. Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire and analysed using an ordered logit regression model in STATA Version 15. Descriptive results revealed that CSA adoption was predominantly partial (44.85%), followed by non-adoption (38.66%) and full adoption (16.49%). The ordered logit model demonstrated that all four participatory extension approaches positively influenced adoption intensity, with Community-Based Extension Services (CBES) having the strongest effect (β = 0.521, p = 0.001), followed by Farmer Field Schools (FFS) (β = 0.418, p = 0.015), Participatory Technology Development (β = 0.352, p = 0.036), and Participatory Rural Appraisal (β = 0.296, p = 0.064). Among the control variables, education (β = 0.087, p = 0.034) and income (β = 0.193, p = 0.030) positively influenced adoption, whereas gender was not significant after controlling for other factors. The study concludes that participatory extension approaches significantly influence CSA adoption intensity, with community-based and experiential learning approaches being the most effective. Accordingly, the study recommends prioritising and scaling up community-based extension services and farmer field schools; strengthening participatory technology development; integrating participatory rural appraisal with practical implementation support; and designing extension programmes that consider farmers' educational and income levels.