Beyond Modular Localization: Neurobiology of the Developing Language Network and Additional-Language Learning in Middle Childhood

Abstract

Contemporary neuroscience has moved from classical localisationist accounts of language towards models in which language emerges from interacting neural systems. This critical integrative review examines the developing language network during middle childhood, with particular attention to neuroplasticity, verbal working memory, phonological processing, speech perception, oral repetition, and additional-language learning. It also considers intensive oral memorisation, including Qur'anic memorisation, as a culturally situated learning experience involving repeated listening, recitation, serial retrieval, articulation, attention, and teacher-guided correction. The review does not assume that memorisation improves intelligence or additional-language proficiency; instead, it identifies cognitive and linguistic processes that can be examined empirically. Contemporary evidence indicates that language relies on interacting cortical, white-matter, subcortical, and cerebellar systems rather than an isolated language centre. During childhood, functional specialisation, connectivity, attention, memory, and language processing continue to develop. Additional language learning provides further evidence for experience-dependent plasticity, although outcomes vary with age, exposure, proficiency, instruction, and individual differences. The Arabic–English phonetic interface is considered cautiously, particularly stop-voicing and voice-onset-time patterns. The review emphasises that /p/ is not a native phonemic contrast in Modern Standard Arabic and is absent as a native phoneme in many Arabic varieties, rather than assuming it is absent from all Arabic dialects. The authors propose a Developmentally Informed Neuro-Language Framework (DINF) to connect neural development, cognitive-linguistic processing, cultural learning experience, and pedagogy. DINF is conceptual and requires empirical validation. The review concludes by proposing a research agenda for Libyan children that separates culturally situated learning experience from measurable cognitive, phonological, auditory, and additional-language outcomes.