Ecosystem services and livelihood pathways: the nexus between biodiversity governance and environmental justice in rural Eastern Cape, South Africa

Abstract

Mountain ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa provide essential services, including water provision, soil fertility, and biodiversity conservation, yet they are increasingly threatened by climate variability and governance challenges. While a growing body of scholarship has examined climate impacts on ecosystem services and rural livelihoods, fewer studies have explicitly integrated environmental justice and biodiversity governance to explain differentiated livelihood outcomes in South African mountain socio-ecological systems. This study examines how climate change, governance structures, and environmental justice intersect to shape community resilience in South Africa’s Amathole Mountains, focusing on the communities of Hopefield, Bold Point, and Hogsback. Using a qualitative research approach, data were collected from 83 participants through 74 semi-structured interviews, two focus group discussions, and nine key informant interviews involving rural households, community leaders, and tourism stakeholders to capture diverse perspectives. Findings reveal that erratic rainfall, declining soil fertility, and reduced water access are reshaping livelihood pathways and intensifying food and income insecurity. Governance shortcomings, including limited institutional capacity, weak extension support, and exclusion from adaptation planning, further constrain equitable access to ecosystem services, deepening environmental injustices. Despite these challenges, communities employ indigenous practices, informal knowledge sharing, and small-scale conservation initiatives to sustain resilience. Despite growing research on ecosystem services and climate adaptation, few studies have explored the interactions between biodiversity governance, environmental justice, and livelihoods in South Africa’s mountain socio-ecological systems. This study addresses this gap by integrating environmental justice theory, political ecology, and resilience thinking to examine how governance and climate variability shape ecosystem services, livelihood outcomes, and community resilience. This study further contends that ecosystem-based, participatory governance rooted in local knowledge and attentive to differentiated livelihood pathways is essential for biodiversity conservation, rural well-being, and climate adaptation in mountain socio-ecological systems. Findings highlight the need for governance approaches that simultaneously address ecological sustainability, social equity, and climate resilience in vulnerable mountain regions.