The Birth of Modern Architectural Thought: Architectural Theory From the 19th Century to the Early 20th Century

Abstract

This paper explores the intellectual formation of modern architectural thought from the 19th to the early20th centuries, situating it within the intertwined contexts of political upheaval, technological transformation,and theoretical debate. It begins with the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent urban transformations ofParis and Vienna, which catalyzed fundamental questions regarding architecture’s social role, material logic,and representational capacity. From this context, the paper examines the 19th century debate on style throughthe works of Heinrich Hübsch and Karl Bötticher, focusing on their attempts to reconcile construction, material,and form in the search for architectural legitimacy in an industrial age. The study then turns to GottfriedSemper’s theories—particularly the Four Elements of Architecture and the Theory of Cladding—as a decisiveconceptual shift that sought to replace stylistic discourse with an understanding of architecture grounded inmaterial practice, technique, and enclosure. Building on this foundation, the paper examines Robert Vischer’sTheory of Empathy (Einfühlung), August Schmarsow’s conception of architectural space (Raum), and AdolfLoos’s Raumplan as critical developments that repositioned architecture around human perception, spatialexperience, and the ethical act of building. Through these theories, architecture emerges not as a question ofappearance, but as a synthesis of material truth, spatial order, and lived experience. By situating the notionof Building-Art (Baukunst) as a reaction against 19th century historicism and stylistic representation, the paperargues that the interrelation of empathy, space, and building constitutes a core theoretical framework thatdefines modern architecture. Extending this historical analysis, the paper further reflects on architectural practiceand theory since 1990, demonstrating how contemporary concerns—such as phenomenology, tectonics, digitaltechnologies, and ecological responsibility—do not represent a rupture from modern architectural thought, butrather its transformation under new historical conditions. In this expanded perspective, modern architecture isunderstood not as a closed stylistic period, but as an open-ended intellectual project whose foundationalquestions concerning material authenticity, spatial perception, and the ethics of dwelling continue to shapearchitectural thought and practice today.