Blockchain in emerging higher education systems: a TOE-based framework for adoption informed by faculty evidence from Jordan
Abstract
Blockchain is increasingly discussed in higher education both as curriculum content and as infrastructure for digital credentials and student records. However, empirical evidence from emerging higher education systems remains limited. This study investigates the factors shaping blockchain adoption in Jordanian higher education and develops an empirically informed Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE)-based framework. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 170 faculty members from public and private universities in Jordan. The survey examined current and planned blockchain-related teaching, perceived adoption barriers, and institutional support priorities. The resulting framework was subjected to initial content validation by an expert panel of 12 participants. Only 11.8% of respondents reported currently teaching blockchain-related content, whereas 64.7% planned to introduce it during the following academic year. The principal barriers were a lack of high-quality textbooks and case studies (41.2%), limited time for specialized training (23.5%), and inadequate laboratory or software infrastructure (17.6%). Faculty most frequently prioritized pedagogical workshops and industry partnerships, with each selected by 35.3% of respondents. Based on these findings, the study developed a five-dimensional TOE-based framework encompassing strategy, governance, infrastructure, curriculum integration, and stakeholder capacity. Expert validation identified governance and regulatory issues, together with stakeholder capacity, as the main near-term bottlenecks. The findings indicate substantial faculty interest in blockchain education but limited institutional readiness to support its adoption. The proposed framework provides an evidence-informed roadmap for aligning faculty development, curriculum planning, infrastructure investment, governance, and industry engagement in Jordanian higher education.