Gender differences in body appreciation beyond binary comparisons: A comprehensive, preregistered multivariate 4-level meta-analysis across 75 nations

Abstract

Body appreciation has received a good deal of research attention due to its role in the promotion of well-being and adaptive eating. Prior meta-analytic evidence has pointed to small gender differences in body appreciation (favoring men), but the rapidly expanding literature and growing recognition of gender diversity require an updated synthesis. Accordingly, this account provides the first preregistered meta-analysis and systematic review of gender differences in body appreciation that extends beyond binary gender comparisons, synthesizing 349 samples from 75 nations ( N = 204,315), with body appreciation instruments administered in 51 languages and including nonbinary ( n = 743) and transgender ( n = 540) individuals. Using multivariate 4-level meta-analytic modeling, relevant group differences (women vs. men, nonbinary vs. binary, and transgender vs. cisgender individuals) were examined. Men reported slightly higher body appreciation than women ( g = 0.21). Larger differences emerged between binary and nonbinary individuals ( g = 0.65 and 0.55 for men and women, respectively, vs. nonbinary individuals). Transgender individuals reported lower body appreciation than cisgender individuals, although estimates were imprecise. For all group comparisons, prediction intervals included both negative and positive effect values, thus indicating substantial uncertainty about the direction and magnitude of these effects in future studies, likely due to effect heterogeneity observed at the study and sample levels, which was partly accounted by sample type, study instrumentation, publication status, nation-level gender equality, and sexual orientation. Overall, findings indicate a graded pattern of body appreciation across gender identities, highlighting the importance of extending body image research beyond binary perspectives.