THE POTENTIAL OF 3D PRINTING AND BIOPRINTING IN CARDIOLOGY AND VASCULAR SURGERY: A NARRATIVE REVIEW OF DIAGNOSTIC, THERAPEUTIC, AND EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS

Abstract

Background Three-dimensional printing and bioprinting are increasingly being investigated in cardiology and vascular surgery. Their applications include patient-specific anatomical modeling, diagnostic support, preoperative planning, procedural simulation, medical education, tissue engineering, and the development of vascular grafts. However, these applications differ substantially in their level of clinical readiness. Aim This narrative review aimed to assess the diagnostic, therapeutic, educational, and regenerative applications of 3D printing and bioprinting in cardiology and vascular surgery and to distinguish applications closer to routine clinical use from technologies that remain experimental. Materials and Methods A literature search was conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar for English-language publications published between 2016 and 2026. The search terms included “3D Bioprinting,” “Three-Dimensional Printing,” “Blood Vessels,” “Bioprinted Vessels,” “Vascular System,” “Vascular Grafts,” “Cardiovascular Disease,” “Tissue Engineering,” and “Biomaterials.” The search was completed on March 26, 2026. After assessment for thematic relevance, 46 sources were included. Results Three-dimensional printing is increasingly used for cardiovascular anatomical modeling, preoperative planning, procedural simulation, medical education, and patient communication and may also support selected diagnostic applications. Patient-specific models can reproduce complex cardiac and vascular anatomy using computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and echocardiographic data. In contrast, vascular bioprinting remains largely experimental. Progress has been reported in bioink design, the fabrication of multilayer vascular structures, endothelialization, perfusion, and the reproduction of selected mechanical properties of native vessels. Major limitations include insufficient mechanical durability, difficulties in maintaining long-term patency and endothelial function, thrombogenicity, biological instability, and the fabrication of small-diameter vessels and microvascular networks. An acellular tissue-engineered vascular graft has received clinical approval, but this should not be regarded as evidence that directly 3D-bioprinted vessels are ready for routine use. Conclusions Three-dimensional printing is currently closer to routine clinical use than vascular bioprinting, particularly in anatomical modeling, treatment planning, procedural simulation, education, and patient communication. Vascular bioprinting has substantial potential for regenerative medicine, but routine clinical implementation requires further standardized preclinical testing, well-designed clinical studies, regulatory oversight, and long-term patient registries.