Multifaceted Roles of Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Biostimulants for Sustainable and Resilient Agriculture

The growing pressure exerted by global food demand, combined with the excessive use of chemical and synthetic inputs, is prompting the agricultural sector to seek innovative and sustainable solutions to improve, or at least maintain, crop yields in a context of increased abiotic stress linked to climate change. Among the promising approaches, biostimulants are attracting growing interest, particularly those derived from natural sources such as seaweed extracts, humic acids, and beneficial microorganisms. These products work through various mechanisms, including osmotic regulation, activation of antioxidant systems, stimulation of root growth, and improvement of nutrient absorption. Many recent research and review articles have explored the optimal combinations of raw materials, formulation processes, target crops, and environmental conditions to maximize beneficial effects on plant growth, soil health, and tolerance to abiotic stresses. As a result, a growing range of commercial products is emerging, with diverse chemical compositions, formulations, and modes of application. However, the precise relationships between the biochemical composition of biostimulants and their physiological effects remain poorly understood, suggesting a key role for molecular synergies. This review provides a concise overview of recent advances in biostimulant research and their potential to enhance food security by improving crop resilience in the context of climate change.

Harnessing Trichoderma Species for Sustainable Biocontrol: Mechanisms, Formulation Strategies, Commercialization, and Field Applications

Trichoderma species are widely investigated and commercially applied as eco-friendly biocontrol agents in sustainable agriculture. These filamentous fungi protect plants through multiple complementary mechanisms, including mycoparasitism, antibiosis, competition for nutrients and ecological niches, and induction of systemic resistance in host plants. These activities are mediated by a diverse array of secondary metabolites, hydrolytic enzymes, and signaling pathways that collectively suppress pathogens and enhance plant health. Beyond disease control, selected Trichoderma strains promote plant growth by improving nutrient acquisition, modulating phytohormone signaling, and increasing tolerance to abiotic stresses. This review summarizes recent advances in the mechanisms underlying Trichoderma spp. mediated biocontrol, with particular emphasis on secondary metabolites, formulation strategies, commercialization, and field applications. Commercial products are available in various formulations, including wettable powders, granules, and liquid preparations, and have demonstrated efficacy against several economically important plant diseases under field conditions. However, their performance remains highly dependent on strain characteristics, host species, environmental conditions and agricultural practices, resulting in inconsistent efficacy across agroecosystems. Recent progress in genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics has substantially improved our understanding of Trichoderma–plant–pathogen interactions and revealed considerable strain-specific variation in biocontrol and plant growth-promoting traits. Future research should prioritize strain-specific optimization, formulation stability, microbiome-informed applications, and improved field predictability. Overall, Trichoderma spp. Represents a valuable component of integrated disease management, offering an effective and sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides.

Postharvest biocontrol agents in fruits and vegetables: mechanisms, applications, challenges, and future perspectives

Postharvest losses of horticultural produce, primarily due to microbial decay, remain a major challenge to global food security, accounting for 35–50% of production annually. To control this, overuse of synthetic fungicides has led to pathogen resistance, environmental contamination, and health concerns, prompting a shift toward sustainable biocontrol agents (BCAs). This review comprehensively examines the potential of microbial antagonists (yeasts, bacteria, and fungi), plant-based agents (essential oils and extracts), and natural compounds (e.g., chitosan, alginate, organic acids, etc.) for managing postharvest diseases in fruits and vegetables. Key mechanisms of action including competition for nutrients and space, production of antifungal metabolites and enzymes, biofilm formation, induction of host resistance, and volatile organic compounds are discussed in detail. Application strategies (pre- and postharvest), synergistic integrations with physical/chemical treatments, advantages over conventional pesticides, and major challenges (e.g., formulation stability, regulatory hurdles, and commercialization) are critically analyzed. Emerging approaches such as omics technologies, microbial consortia, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology offer promising avenues to enhance BCA efficacy and consistency. This review highlights successful examples and future perspectives of BCAs in postharvest diseases control setup and more importantly their co-applications together with other natural disease control methods and technologies. Finally, it underscores BCAs as viable, eco-friendly alternatives that can extend shelf life, preserve quality, and support sustainable postharvest management.

Biofertilizers and Biostimulants for Sustainable Rosaceae Crop Production

The Rosaceae family includes some of the most economically important fruit and nut crops worldwide, such as apples, strawberries, and almonds. Increasing market demand and climate constraints have intensified reliance on synthetic fertilizers, leading to environmental degradation and reduced ecosystem resilience. In response, sustainable alternatives, such as organic fertilizers, biofertilizers, and biostimulants, have gained increasing attention. Here, we review recent findings in the application of these ecofriendly inputs in Rosaceae crops, using almonds (Prunus dulcis) as a representative case study. We highlight the roles of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in improving nutrient availability, stress tolerance, soil fertility, and crop productivity through mechanisms including biological nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, siderophore production, phytohormone modulation, and enhanced plant defense responses. Evidence from field, greenhouse, and controlled experimental studies has indicated that rhizobacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, as well as organic fertilizers, enhance nutrient uptake, photosynthetic efficiency, fruit yields, and quality while supporting soil biodiversity and long-term orchard sustainability. Despite their demonstrated benefits, the adoption of biofertilizers and biostimulants in almond orchards remains limited. This review discusses the current challenges, knowledge gaps, and future perspectives for integrating microbial-based solutions into sustainable Rosaceae cultivation systems.

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria: dual roles in enhancing nutrition and mitigating climate-related abiotic stresses

Climatic stresses impede plant growth and development, leading to significant reductions in crop yield and biomass production. These challenges are exacerbated by global population growth and increasing desertification, which threaten global food security. Although advanced agricultural technologies, including smart irrigation systems, optimized cropping calendars, and stress-tolerant cultivars, have been developed to mitigate these stressors, their large-scale adoption remains limited due to high costs, technical complexity, and infrastructural constraints. Therefore, sustainable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective strategies are urgently required to ensure adequate crop productivity for the growing global population. At this crucial juncture, there is a pressing need to transition toward sustainable agricultural practices that strengthen plant resilience through natural and biological mechanisms. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) represent a promising biological approach for enhancing crop productivity by improving nutrient availability and mitigating the adverse effects of climate-induced abiotic and biotic stresses. This review uniquely integrates the biochemical, physiological, and molecular mechanisms of PGPR in plant nutrition and stress mitigation while critically analyzing contradictory field results and highlighting newly characterized strains and sustainable tools for climate-resilient agriculture.

Structural Diversity and Application of Plant Extracts as Biocontrol Agents Against Phytopathogens: a Review