The global plastic pollution crisis demands a fundamental re-evaluation of materials systems beyond incremental improvements to fossil fuel-based polymers. Bioplastics, polymers derived from renewable biological feedstocks, biodegradable under defined conditions, or both, offer a chemically diverse and rapidly evolving platform for transitioning toward circular materials economies in which the value of carbon, energy, and material is retained across multiple use cycles. This review provides a comprehensive and critically organized account of the bioplastics field, spanning three generations of feedstock development from food crops through lignocellulosic residues to algae and waste streams; primary production pathways including microbial fermentation, ring-opening polymerization, and biosynthesis; forming processes from extrusion and injection molding to additive manufacturing; and the mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties that determine application fitness. Particular emphasis is placed on life cycle assessment, which reveals that bioplastics’ climate benefits are conditional on feedstock choice, land-use management, energy source at manufacturing, and end-of-life pathway, and that burden-shifting from greenhouse gas emissions to land use, water consumption, and eutrophication is a systematic risk requiring integrated LCA evaluation rather than single-metric optimization. The review further examines end-of-life recycling, composting, and biodegradation pathways; market applications across packaging, agriculture, automotive, biomedical, and electronics sectors; and the growing role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in accelerating materials design, process optimization, and lifecycle data management. Critical barriers to scale, such as cost premiums of 20–75% over conventional plastics, inadequate composting infrastructure, recycling stream contamination, regulatory fragmentation, and consumer labeling confusion, are systematically analyzed alongside mitigation strategies. The review concludes with a forward-looking discussion of emerging feedstocks, smart and functional bioplastics, and the policy and infrastructure investments required to translate the environmental promise of bio-based polymers into realized circular economy impact.
Microalgae remain scientifically compelling biofuel feedstocks because they can convert light and carbon into chemically diverse biomass without an intrinsic requirement for fertile agricultural land, while some production systems can also use saline water, wastewater nutrients and concentrated carbon dioxide streams. Yet the field has not translated laboratory demonstrations into routine production of competitively priced, low-carbon commodity fuels. This critical narrative review evaluates why that gap persists and how the research agenda has changed. Literature published from 1 January 2015 to 22 June 2026 was examined, with earlier seminal studies retained where necessary to establish mechanisms, process benchmarks and the evolution of sustainability arguments. Evidence was synthesised across strain physiology and engineering, cultivation, harvesting and dewatering, lipid-based biodiesel, hydrothermal liquefaction, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, carbohydrate-derived fuels, wastewater and carbon integration, techno-economics and life-cycle assessment. The central finding is that microalgal fuel performance is governed by cross-stage interactions rather than by a single favourable trait such as lipid content. Stress-induced lipid accumulation can reduce biomass productivity; controlled photobioreactors can improve culture performance while increasing capital and energy burdens; and downstream choices determine whether dilute wet biomass becomes an energetic liability or a useful feedstock. Hydrothermal liquefaction is particularly compatible with wet whole biomass, whereas conventional biodiesel benefits from mature chemistry but is constrained by selective lipid recovery and drying or extraction requirements. Wastewater, nutrient recycling, carbon utilisation and coproduct valorisation can improve system performance, but benefits are strongly context dependent and may be overstated when environmental-service credits or high-value coproduct revenues are assumed without scale-consistent markets. Pilot-informed life-cycle studies continue to show substantial sensitivity to electricity supply, infrastructure, productivity, nutrient source, dewatering and allocation choices. The most defensible near-term direction is therefore not a universal algal-fuel process, but location-specific, integrated biorefineries in which fuel production is co-designed with nutrient recovery, carbon management and realistic coproduct pathways. Progress towards commercial relevance requires continuous outdoor validation, harmonised assessment, wet-processing strategies and evidence that integrated gains persist at scale.
M. Haruna, H. A. Shindi· Biotechnology Journal Intern...· 0 citations
Algal biorefineries provide a platform for producing fuels, biodegradable materials, and higher-value co-products from the same biomass resource. This review examines integrated pathways that connect microalgal and macroalgal cultivation with biodiesel production, hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), anaerobic digestion (AD), polysaccharide extraction, and bioplastic manufacture. Microalgal lipid contents of 40%-70% of dry biomass can support biodiesel production, whereas hydrothermal processing of wet biomass has produced bio-crude yields of 30-50 wt% with energy densities of approximately 35-40 MJ/kg. Macroalgal polysaccharides, including alginate, agar, and carrageenan, can be processed into films, blends, and composites with reported tensile strengths of 18-45 MPa. However, the environmental and economic performance of these routes depends on cultivation configuration, dewatering requirements, product recovery, allocation method, and system boundary. Published techno-economic estimates place stand-alone algal biodiesel production at approximately USD 4-7 gal-1. In contrast, integrated scenarios can approach USD 2.50 gal-1 when favorable biomass productivity and co-product credits are assumed. Machine-learning (ML) methods have mainly been applied to laboratory data analysis and process prediction, while evidence of commercial real-time control remains limited. The review identifies mass-balance reporting, long-duration outdoor cultivation, standardized biodegradation testing, and harmonized techno-economic and life-cycle assessment as priorities for scale-up.
S. S., B. S, S. J et al.· Biotechnology and applied bi...· 0 citations
Plastic pollution has become a global environmental crisis, threatening ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health. The extensive use of petroleum-based plastics, particularly single-use plastics, has resulted in the accumulation of persistent plastic waste in terrestrial and aquatic environments, contributing significantly to microplastic pollution and ecological degradation. Bioplastics have gained considerable attention as sustainable alternatives because they are derived wholly or partially from renewable resources and may exhibit biodegradable properties depending on their composition. Feedstocks such as corn starch, sugarcane, cellulose, algae, and microbial biomass offer environmentally friendly alternatives to fossil-based raw materials while supporting the transition toward a circular bioeconomy. This review provides a comprehensive overview of bioplastics, including their classification, raw materials, production techniques, industrial applications, environmental and economic benefits, current limitations, and recent technological advancements, highlighting their role in reducing plastic pollution and advancing sustainable materials science. With growing global interest in eco-friendly alternatives, bioplastics are expected to play a crucial role in reducing plastic waste, promoting green manufacturing, and shaping sustainable consumer behaviour. Continued research, technological innovation, supportive government policies, and improvements in waste management infrastructure will be essential to enhance the performance, affordability, and large-scale adoption of bioplastics in the future.
Sneha A. Agrawal, Shifa Swaleha, Veenu Joshi et al.· NewBioWorld· 0 citations
The concurrent crises of plastic pollution, climate change, and resource scarcity demand innovative biotechnological solutions. This review explores an emerging paradigm to produce polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) bioplastics using wastewater sludge (WWS) as a primary feedstock. WWS is a complex yet globally abundant waste stream rich in organic carbon and nutrients, making it a promising and cost‐effective substrate for sustainable PHA production. We discuss metabolic engineering strategies designed to transform mixed microbial cultures into robust and well‐characterized industrial PHA producers, including the heterologous expression of key PHA biosynthesis genes such as
phaCAB
. Direct PHA synthesis on sludge‐derived media is a promising, integrated approach to waste management and sustainable production, transforming WWS from a treatment‐focused service into a resource‐recovery as bioplastics. This review critically evaluates the key challenges associated with this strategy, including process scalability, optimization of PHA yield, downstream processing, sustainability, and integration within circular bio‐systems. Conventional WWS management emits ~0.3–1.5 kg CO
2
‐eq/kg PHA dry sludge, whereas life cycle assessments (LCAs) framework indicates that PHA production from WWS results in emissions of approximately ~1.5–3.5 kg CO
2
‐eq/kg PHA produced. Compared with ~3.5–6.5 kg CO
2
‐eq/kg PHA fossil‐based plastic replaced on a cradle‐to‐grave basis. When avoided WWS disposal and fossil plastic substitution are considered, WWS‐derived PHAs production has the potential to deliver net climate benefits within a circular‐economy framework.
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Anwar Ahmad, Adil A. Al-Shoaibi, Yasir Alhawti et al.· EcoMat· 0 citations
The continuous growth in global population has significantly increased energy demand, leading to the rapid depletion of fossil fuel reserves and environmental issues such as climate change. The combustion of fossil fuels is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, raising serious environmental and energy security concerns. At the same time, industrial development and urbanization have intensified the need for alternative energy sources that are both sustainable and economically viable. Renewable energy, particularly bioenergy has emerged as a promising solution. Among various biofuels, bioethanol is considered as one of the most widely produced and utilized fuel worldwide due to its clean-burning properties, safety, and environmental benefits. Bioethanol is increasingly viewed as a strategic alternative to conventional liquid fuels but the raw materials that are being used to obtain first generation bioethanol are typically food crops raises ethical and logistical concerns regarding global food supply. Hence, in recent years there has been growing interest in second-generation bioethanol derived from lignocellulosic biomass, which includes agricultural residues, forestry waste, and other non-food plant materials, as this feedstock is abundant, renewable, and inexpensive, making it an attractive option. However, the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol presents significant technical challenges due to its complex structure and the presence of lignin, which resists enzymatic breakdown. These challenges have hindered the large-scale commercial production of bioethanol. Nevertheless, substantial research and technological developments are underway to overcome these barriers and make the process more efficient and economically feasible. This review aims to highlight the technological details that are being applied for the conversion of biomass waste into biofuels. This review focuses on the provision of updated information on current use of existing conversion techniques, various processes and current advancements in lignocellulosic bioethanol production, with a focus on improving and optimizing the process of the conversion of biomass into fermentable sugars and ultimately, sustainable bioethanol fuel.
Jabeen Firdouse, P. Nagaraju, Vikram Athreya et al.· Journal of King Saud Univers...· 0 citations
Bio-based origin, biodegradability, and compostability represent distinct concepts, and promising laboratory results do not always translate biopolymer-based food packaging into industrial implementation. This review adopts a value-chain perspective to critically assess the transition of biopolymer-based food packaging from renewable feedstocks to commercial products and end-of-life management. It evaluates key stages of the entire value chain, including polymer production, processing technologies, economic feasibility, regulatory requirements, environmental performance, and waste-management strategies. Major barriers to commercialization include feedstock and material variability, production and purification costs, processing limitations, performance gaps, certification challenges, and insufficient recycling or composting infrastructure. Evidence from techno-economic and life cycle assessments indicate that successful implementation depends on integrated production systems, process optimization, co-product valorization, and realistic end-of-life scenarios. Advancing biopolymer packaging therefore requires coordinated development across the entire value chain rather than isolated improvements in polymer design.
D. Šuput, Mia Kurek, A. Stupar· Coatings· 2 citations
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