Mocravimod as a repurposing drug against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus by targeting cell membrane

Abstract

ABSTRACT Staphylococcus aureus infections, particularly those caused by multidrug-resistant strains and associated with biofilm formation, pose a major therapeutic challenge in clinical practice. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial and antibiofilm activity of mocravimod (KRP-203), an FDA-approved S1P receptor modulator, against clinical S. aureus isolates and to explore its underlying mechanism of action. The antibacterial activity of KRP-203 was assessed against methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) using MIC determination, time-kill assays, and biofilm inhibition models. KRP-203 exhibited strong bactericidal activity against planktonic MSSA and MRSA, with MIC values ranging 6.25–50μM. Time-kill assays demonstrated rapid bacterial eradication at 8× MIC within 2 h, showing superior killing kinetics compared with vancomycin. At sub-inhibitory concentrations, KRP-203 inhibited biofilm formation by up to 70% and reduced viable bacterial counts in mature biofilms by >2.5 logs. To elucidate the antibacterial mechanism, whole-genome sequencing and quantitative proteomic analyses were performed. These analyses revealed mutations in membrane-associated genes, including glnQ and BCAT, and significant alterations in proteins related to membrane integrity and redox regulation. Consistently, functional assays confirmed that KRP-203 disrupts bacterial cell membrane, as evidenced by dose-dependent membrane depolarization, increased permeability, and direct binding to cardiolipin and phosphatidylglycerol. Molecular docking further predicted a favorable interaction between KRP-203 and GlnQ. In conclusion, KRP-203 demonstrated notable antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against S. aureus, likely through membrane integrity disruption. While these findings highlight its potential as a repurposed antibacterial agent, further studies are required to fully elucidate its molecular targets, optimize antibacterial efficacy, and evaluate its in vivo safety profile. IMPORTANCE Antibiotic resistance and the formation of biofilms, which protect bacteria from medications and immunological responses, present the significant challenges for the clinical treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infections. This study reveals mocravimod hydrochloride (KRP-203), a clinically approved drug initially intended to treat leukemia, as a viable new candidate against S. aureus infection. KRP-203 quickly kills both drug-susceptible and resistant S. aureus, including difficult-to-treat biofilm-associated cells. Its membrane-disrupting activity quickly kills drug-resistant bacteria while also destroying biofilm formations, presenting a dual action rarely accomplished by conventional antibiotics. Critically, KRP-203’s established safety profile in human studies may hasten its repurposing as a new weapon against biofilm-associated infections, providing possible solutions for chronic and drug-resistant S. aureus infections where existing treatments commonly fail. Antibiotic resistance and the formation of biofilms, which protect bacteria from medications and immunological responses, present the significant challenges for the clinical treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infections. This study reveals mocravimod hydrochloride (KRP-203), a clinically approved drug initially intended to treat leukemia, as a viable new candidate against S. aureus infection. KRP-203 quickly kills both drug-susceptible and resistant S. aureus, including difficult-to-treat biofilm-associated cells. Its membrane-disrupting activity quickly kills drug-resistant bacteria while also destroying biofilm formations, presenting a dual action rarely accomplished by conventional antibiotics. Critically, KRP-203’s established safety profile in human studies may hasten its repurposing as a new weapon against biofilm-associated infections, providing possible solutions for chronic and drug-resistant S. aureus infections where existing treatments commonly fail.