Evaluating Tropospheric Mapping Functions for GPS-Derived PWV in a Tropical Region: Insights from Southwestern Mexico

Abstract

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) have emerged as a reliable and cost-effective tool for estimating atmospheric precipitable water vapor (PWV), particularly in regions with limited meteorological instrumentation. In this study, the performance of three tropospheric mapping functions—the Global Mapping Function (GMF), Niell Mapping Function (NMF), and Vienna Mapping Function 1 (VMF1)—was evaluated for PWV estimation using GPS observations collected during the 2009–2011 period in southwestern Mexico, a region characterized by high atmospheric variability and frequent extreme weather events. GPS data from three stations (TECO, COL2, and PENA) were processed using the GAMIT/GLOBK 10.71 software, and the resulting PWV estimates were validated against independent radiosonde observations and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Fifth-Generation Reanalysis (ERA5) data. The results show that GPS-derived PWV successfully captures the seasonal variability of atmospheric water vapor, with maximum values during the summer rainy season. High correlations were obtained with both radiosonde and ERA5 data, particularly at the TECO station (R = 0.95–0.99), where RMSE values ranged from 3.27 to 5.46 mm and BIAS values from −2.73 to −1.47 mm. In contrast, larger discrepancies were observed at COL2 and PENA, mainly due to horizontal separation and altitude differences relative to the radiosonde site, highlighting the importance of spatial representativeness during validation. Among the evaluated mapping functions, no single model consistently outperformed the others across all stations, years, and reference datasets. Nevertheless, GMF and NMF generally exhibited more stable and consistent performance, whereas VMF1 showed greater variability under the adopted processing strategy. Additionally, a clear relationship was identified between PWV and precipitation records, indicating that increases in PWV coincided with periods of intense rainfall and suggesting its potential as an indicator of atmospheric conditions favorable for precipitation events. Overall, this study shows that GPS-derived PWV can reproduce the seasonal variability of atmospheric water vapor under the adopted processing strategy and demonstrates the importance of mapping function selection and spatial representativeness for accurate PWV estimation.