Macrophage Signature-Based Prediction of Cancer Treatment Response Using Attention-Weighted Multiple Instance Learning
TL;DR
A Multiple Instance Learning framework that treats each patient as a bag of macrophage embeddings derived from a single-cell RNA foundation model shows the potential of MIL to uncover predictive and mechanistically interpretable immune states.
Abstract
Predicting immunotherapy response from single-cell data remains difficult due to patient-level labels, extreme class imbalance, and highly heterogeneous macrophage states. We present a Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) framework that treats each patient as a bag of macrophage embeddings derived from a single-cell RNA foundation model. The architecture incorporates an attention-based pooling mechanism with reduced model complexity, dropout-enhanced regularization and explicit attention penalties to improve stability in small-sample regimes. To address imbalanced clinical datasets, MIL outputs are optimized with a combined focal loss and supervised contrastive objective that simultaneously sharpens class boundaries and improves representation clustering. Across three cancer datasets, this approach outperforms pseudobulk aggregation, embedding baselines and standard MIL variants. Attention-weighted attribution and transcriptional regulatory analysis reveal distinct macrophage programs, interferon and antigen-presentation networks in responders versus hypoxia-linked regulatory modules in non-responders. This shows the potential of MIL to uncover predictive and mechanistically interpretable immune states.