Copepods in Aquaculture: Nutritional Drivers of Sustainable and Next-Generation Feed Development

Abstract

: Aquaculture has emerged as the fastest-growing food sector globally, surpassing capture fisheries in 2022, and is increasingly vital for food security. Yet, sustainability challenges persist due to reliance on fishmeal, synthetic additives, and nutritionally limited live feeds such as Artemia and rotifers. Copepods, the most abundant marine zooplankton, are increasingly recognized as next-generation live feed owing to their superior biochemical composition, including high levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), balanced amino acids, carotenoids, and bioactive compounds. Their natural role as prey for fish larvae ensures ecological relevance and nutritional adequacy, driving enhanced larval survival, pigmentation, immunity, and stress resilience. Comparative evidence consistently demonstrates that copepods outperform conventional feeds, often without the need for enrichment. Advances in mass culture techniques, microalgal integration, and biotechnological innovations are steadily transforming copepod production from experimental practice to scalable application. Beyond aquaculture, copepod-derived bioactives hold translational potential for nutraceutical and therapeutic industries, reinforcing their role in the circular bioeconomy. However, commercialisation bottlenecks persist, particularly in India, where copepod culture remains at the research stage. The ornamental fish industry, valued at over USD 15 billion, further underscores the indispensability of nutritionally rich live feeds.