Advancing the circular economy for electronic waste: a systems-based review of barriers, solutions, and actionable pathways
The rapid proliferation of electronic devices has made electronic waste (e-waste) one of the fastest-growing waste streams globally, yet only a fraction is formally collected and recycled. The circular economy (CE) offers a transformative framework for rethinking e-waste systems, but a persistent implementation gap separates theoretical potential from on-the-ground reality. This paper provides a narrative thematic review that synthesizes cross-disciplinary evidence to map the co-evolution of e-waste management practices, business models, and policy instruments under a CE lens. Drawing on academic literature, policy documents, and industry reports from 2010 to 2025, the review examines current practices across collection systems, reverse logistics, and formal-informal sector dynamics. It identifies systemic barriers spanning product design, collection inefficiencies, and processing limitations, revealing how failures in one domain, such as weak eco-design or fragmented regulation, amplify challenges elsewhere, creating self-reinforcing lock-ins. The analysis then explores emerging enablers, including technological innovations (hydrometallurgy, bio-hydrometallurgy, automated disassembly, digital product passports), policy instruments (extended producer responsibility with eco-modulated fees, right-to-repair legislation), circular product design strategies, and economic incentives (deposit-refund schemes, blended finance, public procurement). The central finding is that isolated interventions are insufficient; coordinated, systems-level approaches are required to bridge implementation gaps. The paper concludes with actionable recommendations for policymakers, recyclers, and consumers, alongside a forward-looking research agenda to advance CE-based e-waste management.