Persistent Grammatical Errors in EFL Writing: A Systematic Review of Learner, Instructional, and Contextual Factors

Abstract

Persistent grammatical and written-language errors remain a recurring concern in EFL writing, particularly in instructed and exam-oriented learning contexts. Guided by PRISMA 2020, this systematic review synthesizes 25 empirical studies published between 2012 and 2025 and retrieved from Web of Science, Scopus, and CNKI. Rather than treating error persistence as a set of isolated linguistic problems, the review examines how recurrent writing difficulties are shaped by learner-related, instructional, and contextual conditions. The synthesis shows that persistent patterns are reported across grammatical, lexical, and discourse levels, including morphosyntactic errors, restricted lexical choices, and formulaic organization. These patterns are commonly associated with L1-mediated composing, exam-oriented writing instruction, limited revision opportunities, task demands, and feedback conditions that do not always support sustained noticing and uptake. Intervention studies suggest that written corrective feedback, technology-mediated feedback, and data-driven learning can facilitate improvement; however, their effects appear less durable when learners have insufficient opportunities for revision, self-monitoring, and repeated engagement with feedback. The review therefore reframes fossilization-like persistence as an ecology of recurring writing patterns shaped by the interaction of learner processing, classroom routines, task conditions, and feedback practices. The findings highlight the need for process-oriented and context-sensitive EFL writing instruction, particularly in secondary-school and other examination-oriented contexts.