Precision Fermentation for Sustainable Food Production: Technological Advances, Food Applications, Sustainability, Challenges and Future Perspectives

Abstract

Precision fermentation (PF) has developed into an important food-biotechnology platform that employs engineered microorganisms to produce specific food ingredients, such as proteins, enzymes, flavour compounds, sweet proteins, and bioactive molecules, under controlled fermentation conditions. This review critically examines developments in PF, with emphasis on technological progress, microbial cell factories, fermentation productivity, scale-up, food functionality, circular feedstocks, and the increasing application of artificial intelligence. Environmental performance, techno-economic feasibility, safety, regulatory considerations, and consumer acceptance are also considered. The evidence reviewed indicates that PF can support the controlled production of selected food ingredients and has the potential to complement plant-based proteins, biomass fermentation, and cellular-agriculture approaches. However, PF should not be considered inherently sustainable or automatically better than conventional production methods. Its environmental performance is strongly influenced by electricity sources, feedstock selection, titre, rate and yield (TRY), aeration intensity, fermentation duration, and downstream processing. Likewise, commercial success depends on achieving high productivity, efficient product recovery, affordable feedstocks, and suitable scale-up strategies. Safety evaluation should remain product-specific, particularly for allergenic proteins and novel ingredients, while regulatory differences across regions and consumer perceptions will continue to influence the adoption of precision fermentation. A central argument we advance is that PF should be evaluated as an integrated food-system technology, requiring simultaneous consideration of biological engineering, process engineering, food science, life-cycle assessment, techno-economic analysis, and social governance. Looking forward, we see pressing needs for pilot-scale validation, standardized TRY reporting, renewable-energy integration, circular feedstock development, AI-assisted experimental design, food-matrix functionality studies, and harmonized safety and regulatory approaches.