Environmental fate and transport of conflict‐related contaminants across air, soil, and groundwater systems: A review of environmental risks associated with the 2026 USA –Israel–Iran conflict

Abstract

The 2026 USA–Israel–Iran conflict has produced a complex mixture of pollutants from munitions and the burning of large industrial and hydrocarbon facilities. The review synthesizes conflict reports, satellite observations, and environmental literature within a tiered evidence framework to identify key contaminant categories. It also evaluates impacts on air quality and groundwater across the region. Analysis indicates the presence of energetic compounds, including trinitrotoluene, cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, and octogen; perchlorate; heavy metals; and combustion‐related pollutants, including fine particulate matter, black carbon, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. According to the results, there is a time gap. Gas‐phase pollution forms rapidly and is severe from blasting and combustion, producing secondary aerosols and regional plumes. By contrast, groundwater contamination develops slowly due to deposition, soil loading, and vadose‐zone transport, with long‐term impacts on aquifers that unfold over years or decades. The contaminants most frequently responsible for groundwater contamination in the study area are perchlorate and RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine). These contaminants are highly mobile and exhibit low attenuation when released into the environment. Other combustion‐related contaminants pose short‐term exposure risks. The study presents a linked air‐soil‐groundwater framework that accounts for emission, transport, and subsurface migration processes. These results highlight the need for integrated monitoring and modeling methods that encompass atmospheric dispersion and groundwater simulation for transboundary environmental risk assessments in conflict zones.