Cultural variations in the relationship between school belonging and social-emotional skills: a multi-group structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis

Abstract

Social-emotional skills are crucial for student development yet they decline significantly during secondary education globally, raising questions about effective interventions. While school belonging is theorized to support social-emotional development, its cross-cultural universality remains contested. This study examined associations between school belonging and ten social-emotional skill dimensions across eight cultural regions using PISA 2022 data from 527,255 students in 74 countries. Multi-group structural equation modeling revealed positive associations globally, but substantial cross-cultural variation emerged. Harmony-embeddedness cultures (Latin America, South/Southeast Asia) showed the strongest effects, while autonomy-oriented cultures (Western Europe, English-speaking) and Confucian societies exhibited minimal associations. These findings challenge universal assumptions about belonging interventions, demonstrating that cultural values function as crucial contextual factors that amplify, suppress, or redirect belonging’s developmental impact. Results necessitate culturally responsive approaches to social-emotional development rather than one-size-fits-all interventions, highlighting the importance of understanding diverse pathways to human flourishing across cultural contexts.