The metastatic spectrum in functional and non-functional NENs: mechanistic insights from multi-omics

Abstract

Neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) are biologically heterogeneous tumors in which differentiation/grade and hormonal functionality are intersecting but non-equivalent axes. This review focuses on functional and non-functional well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors (NETs), principally gastroenteropancreatic and pancreatic NETs, and critically evaluates how site, lineage, stage, tumor burden, genomic and epigenetic alterations, immune-stromal remodeling, metabolic adaptation, microbiome-associated signals, and treatment pressure converge on metastasis and recurrence. Apparent outcome differences by functionality are inconsistent after clinicopathological adjustment: non-functional presentation is often enriched for delayed diagnosis and adverse features, whereas functional subtypes range from typically indolent insulinomas to clinically aggressive hormone-producing tumors. We reconcile these observations through a layered model in which lineage-defining alterations and chromatin/telomere programs establish cellular state; signaling and metabolic plasticity enable stress adaptation; and hypoxia, angiogenesis, immune cells, fibroblasts, extracellular matrix, and therapy create selective niches for dissemination and relapse. We also define computational strategies for heterogeneous multi-omics integration and a staged biomarker-validation pathway. Evidence remains dominated by pancreatic NETs, and causal support is weakest for microbiome-functionality relationships and several proposed cross-omic links. A spectrum-based framework is therefore most useful when it generates testable, site- and grade-specific hypotheses rather than treating functionality as an isolated prognostic variable.