Online Foreign Language Learning: A Systematic Review of Self-Regulated Learning, Digital Platforms, Learner Readiness, and Engagement

Abstract

This systematic literature review critically examines the evolving landscape of online foreign and second language learning through a synthesis of empirical studies published between 2021 and 2026. Drawing upon Self-Regulated Learning (SLR) Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, the Technology Acceptance Model, and the Community of Inquiry framework, the review investigates the interrelated roles of self-regulatory competencies, learner readiness, digital learning environments, and student engagement in shaping language learning outcomes. By integrating evidence across diverse educational contexts, the study provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence the effectiveness of online language learning and their implications for foreign language acquisition in higher education settings. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines and the PICo framework, a structured search across Scopus and Web of Science databases yielded 32 empirical primary studies after a rigorous quality appraisal process. The thematic synthesis identified four primary domains: Self-Directed Learning, Learner Autonomy, and SRL emerged as the dominant theme (n = 14), highlighting the critical role of self-management and goal-setting in virtual settings. Online Learning Readiness, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation (n = 10) underscored psychological preparedness in overcoming demotivation and learning loss. Digital Technologies and Applications (n = 9) demonstrated the pedagogical affordances of MOOCs, CALL systems, mobile apps, and Generative AI platforms. Finally, Learner Engagement and Interaction (n = 6) proved essential for fostering meaningful learning experiences and optimizing academic achievement. These findings emphasize that higher education institutions must pair technological integration with targeted instructional strategies that actively foster learner autonomy, self-efficacy, and interactive online environments.