Jul 2026· International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health· Vol 276, pp.
114861
· 0 citations· 75 references
Medicine
TL;DR
The need to develop targeted exposure-reduction strategies and regulatory interventions for Thai children is highlighted, as sauce consumption and medication use were associated with higher phthalate levels.
Abstract
Phthalates and phenolic compounds are ubiquitous consumer chemicals, and children are particularly vulnerable to their potential health effects. In Thailand, however, information on children's exposure and regional variation remains limited. We recruited 250 children from two distinct regions of Thailand (Suphan Buri and Chiang Rai) in 2023, measured urinary concentrations of major metabolites of phthalates and alternative plasticizers as well as parent phenolic compounds, and administered questionnaires. The highest median concentrations were observed for the sum of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites (∑DEHP, 73.2 ng/mL), followed by mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP, 72.2 ng/mL) and the sum of diisononyl phthalate metabolites (∑DiNP, 22.6 ng/mL). These levels were 1.4-3.4 times higher than those in German children (GerES V, 2014-2017) and 2.5-5.7 times higher than those in U.S. children (NHANES, 2017-2018). Significant regional differences were identified, with 16 of 26 metabolites showing higher concentrations in Chiang Rai children. These included metabolites of diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), DEHP, DiNP, and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHTP) as well as benzophenone-3 and bisphenol S. Notably, DiNP metabolite levels in Chiang Rai were 1.9-2.6-fold higher than the highest levels reported elsewhere. Risk assessment showed 69.3% of children in Chiang Rai and 16.4% in Suphan Buri exceeded a cumulative hazard index of 1. Regardless of region, DnBP, DEHP, DiBP, and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) were the primary contributors to risk. Sauce consumption and medication use were associated with higher phthalate levels. These findings highlight the need to develop targeted exposure-reduction strategies and regulatory interventions for Thai children.
BACKGROUND
The increasing use of plasticizers as substitutes for heavily regulated phthalates raises concerns about human exposure. However, exposure patterns and suitable biomarkers for exposure assessment remain poorly understood.
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to evaluate temporal variability of plasticizer metabolites in consecutively collected urine samples and to estimate exposure levels using toxicokinetic (TK) modeling.
METHODS
Twenty metabolites of six compounds, di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP), di-isodecyl phthalate (DiDP), di-ethylhexyl adipate (DEHA), di-ethylhexyl terephthalate (DEHTP), di-isononyl cyclohexane (DINCH), and tri-octyl trimellitate (TOTM) were quantified in 218 urine samples collected from six adults over one week. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and bivariate correlations were calculated to evaluate temporal variability across biomarkers. Time-activity diaries were used to identify exposure sources, and TK modeling was applied for biomonitoring-based reverse dosimetry.
RESULTS
Metabolites of DiNP, DEHA, and DEHTP were frequently detected (>70%). First morning voids correlated moderately with daily average concentrations for frequently detected biomarkers (Spearman's ρ = 0.34-0.62, p ≤ 0.05). ICCs ranged from 0.16 to 0.73, with carboxylated metabolites demonstrating fair-to-good temporal stability (ICC = 0.57-0.68) for DiNP, DEHA and DINCH, while the hydroxylated metabolite showed the highest reproducibility for DEHTP (ICC = 0.62). Dietary intake, particularly processed foods, appeared to be the major exposure route, as concentration peaks of DiNP and DEHTP metabolites coincided with recorded dietary events. Daily intake estimates reconstructed from TK models under intermittent ingestion scenarios were generally lower than under continuous exposure assumptions, reflecting systematic differences. For most compounds, mass-balance approaches were comparable to TK model estimates, though DEHA showed a discrepancy attributable to the metabolite-specific model structure.
IMPACT
Phthalate and non-phthalate substitutes increasingly replace heavily regulated phthalates, yet methodological frameworks for biomonitoring-based exposure assessment remain limited. We combined serial urine sampling, time-activity diaries, and toxicokinetic modeling as a case study for comprehensive exposure assessment. Key findings include: (1) secondary metabolites demonstrated fair-to-good temporal stability, while first morning void samples showed moderate correlations with daily exposure; (2) time-activity diaries identified potential dietary sources; and (3) toxicokinetic modeling accounting for realistic exposure scenarios demonstrated advantages over mass-balance approaches. These findings provide practical guidelines for individual-level assessments when environmental monitoring is limited.
Jinhyun Kwon, J. Heo, Aram Lee et al.· Journal of Exposure Science...· 0 citations
The results of the total carcinogenic risk for children aged 7–12 years in all schools caused by the presence of PAHs compounds in outdoor environments was acceptable and in some indoor environments, the values at certain schools exceeded the standard threshold of 10− 6-10− 4, indicating potential health risks.
Mohamad Firdaus Ismail, M. F. Fadzil, Nur Atifah binti Mohd Naim et al.· Asian Journal of Atmospheric...· 0 citations
Overall, biomonitoring results indicate group-specific concentration patterns of PMs and TCS among children with T1D, HPRD and OB groups compared to the control group, and this is the first study to assess PM and TCS concentrations in children across clinical groups, using hair matrix.
M. Koukakis, Stella Baliou, A. Alegakis et al.· Journal of Xenobiotics· 0 citations
Children are considered a vulnerable subpopulation for exposure to emerging contaminants such as organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs). However, in some countries, only limited data on PFR exposure in children are available. Therefore, this study investigated exposure to 8 PFRs by analysis of urinary levels of 13 PFR metabolites in children (n = 502, 6-14 years) from specific regions in Egypt, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia, and South Korea. Overall, more than half of the children showed exposure to triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), tris (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), and 2-ethylhexyldiphenyl phosphate (EHDPHP), with South Korean children showing the highest urinary levels for diphenyl phosphate (DPHP, 0.78 ng/mL), bis (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP, 0.27 ng/mL), and 1-hydroxy-2-propyl bis (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BCIPHIPP, 0.74 ng/mL). Children in Bangladesh showed the lowest detection frequencies and urinary metabolite levels for DPHP (0.27 ng/mL), 2-ethylhexyl phenyl phosphate (EHPHP, < LOQ), and 2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl diphenyl phosphate (5-HO-EHDPHP, < LOQ). Exposure patterns differed significantly between countries. Differences in exposure patterns might result from differences in lifestyle habits such as consumption of canned food, canned beverages, and microwaved food, and housing characteristics. In addition, country-specific flame-retardant regulations might also explain differences between countries. Risk assessment showed only one child with a risk characterization ratio and hazard index > 1, indicating that the included population was not at acute risk for adverse effects due to exposure to PFRs.
F. den Ouden, Danielle E. Que, Stijn Bosschaerts et al.· Journal of Environmental Exp...· 0 citations
BACKGROUND
Phthalates are lipid-like molecules that are used in a variety of household and commercial products, which expose humans to contaminated food, water, and soil. After exposure, phthalates are metabolized to molecules that can act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). EDCs can disrupt a multitude of biological processes, including neurological, metabolic, and reproductive, which results in a variety of health complications. Reproductive hormones, which play a vital role in development, metabolism, and reproductive health in men, are affected by phthalates.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship between toxic environmental exposure to phthalates and the effect on estradiol levels in males aged 20 years and older in the US.
METHODS
Dataset cycles 2013-2016 were utilized from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Multiple statistical analyses were conducted using R software, version 4.2.3.
RESULTS
This study observed a bi-directional relationship between phthalate exposure and estradiol levels in US males aged 20 years and older. MEP (odds ratio [OR] 1.412, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.026-1.944) and MHNCH (ORs 1.416 and 1.461, 95% CI: 1.008-2.062) demonstrated a statistically significant positive correlations with estradiol levels, and MEP (OR 0.612, 95% CI: 0.375-1.000), MHP (ORs 0.357-0.365, 95% CI: 0.131-0.986), MECPP (OR 0.559, 95% CI: 0.314-0.998), MCP (OR 0.467, 95% CI: 0.224-0.971), and MEHP (ORs 0.501-0.599, 95% CI: 0.259-0.974) demonstrated statistically significant negative correlations with estradiol levels. Demographic factors of race and ethnicity, marital status, country of origin, body mass index, and smoking status were correlated with abnormal estradiol levels.
Humairat H. Rahman, Weston R. Stokey, S. Munson-McGee· Reproductive Toxicology· 0 citations
Phthalates are a class of synthetic compounds, known as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, widely used as plasticizers in consumer products, including personal care items, medical devices, and food packaging. Two common phthalates, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and diisononyl phthalate (DiNP), have been associated with adverse effects on female reproductive health. This study investigated the effects of acute DEHP and DiNP exposure on uterine inflammation and oxidative stress in adult female CD-1 mice. Mice were orally dosed for 10 days with vehicle control, DEHP (20μg/kg/day, 200μg/kg/day, or 200mg/kg/day), or DiNP (20μg/kg/day, 100μg/kg/day, or 200mg/kg/day). Uteri were collected during diestrus for histological and gene expression analyses. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) showed that DEHP (20 and 200μg/kg/day) and DiNP (200mg/kg/day) increased expression of inflammasome-related genes (Il18, Il1β, and Nlrp3). DiNP at 200mg/kg/day also increased Il10 expression. Oxidative stress genes revealed DEHP increased Prdx2 expression at all doses without affecting Sod1, Cat, or Gpx1. However, DiNP increased Prdx2 at 20μg/kg/day but reduced Sod1, Cat, and Gpx1 at higher doses. Histological analysis revealed that high-dose DiNP reduced outer myometrium thickness and luminal epithelial cell height, while DEHP only affected the cell height at the highest dose. Macrophage and other mononuclear phagocytic cell infiltration increased with DEHP (20 and 200μg/kg/day) and all doses of DiNP. while cell proliferation was only changed in DEHP (200μg/kg/day). Together, these findings demonstrate that acute exposure to DEHP and DiNP induces uterine inflammatory and oxidative stress responses, with distinct dose-dependent effects for each phthalate.
Adriana Andrus, L. Y. Parra-Forero, Coba N Sexton et al.· Reproductive Toxicology· 1 citation
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