Investigating the impact of learning modes and instructional sequences of VR-integrated station activities on science learning from the multimodal perspective

Abstract

This study explores the impact of different VR learning modes (direct vs. vicarious) and instructional sequences (VR-Reading vs. Reading-VR) on middle school students’ science learning outcomes and transmodal moments during VR-integrated station activities. Using a mixed-methods design, the research involved 85 seventh-grade students, including multilingual learners (MLs) and English-first-language learners (EFLLs), who participated in a week-long unit on science lab safety and equipment. A 2 × 2 × 2 quasi-experimental design was employed to examine the effects of VR learning modes or instructional sequences across learner types on science learning outcomes. In parallel, multimodal interaction analysis was conducted on video data from 16 focal participants to examine transmodal moments—instances in which meaning shifted across communicative modes and activities—and their associations with learning outcomes. Quantitative analysis revealed that the direct learning mode resulted in significantly higher knowledge gains compared to the vicarious learning mode. Additionally, there was an indication of a potential interaction between VR learning mode and learner types; however, this observation should be interpreted with caution due to the limited number of MLs and the small effect size. Instructional sequences did not significantly affect learning outcomes. Qualitative analyses showed that the direct learning mode afforded more frequent modal shifts and richer multimodal engagement, while MLs exhibited more transmodal moments in the VR–Reading sequence. However, these transmodal moments did not fully mitigate existing power dynamics between EFLLs and MLs, with EFLLs remaining more dominant in collaborative meaning-making. Overall, the findings suggest that the direct learning mode enhances science learning outcomes by deepening multimodal integration, and that promoting equitable participation for MLs in VR-based collaborative settings may require intentional role assignment and transmodal scaffolding. Implications for designing inclusive, immersive, and multimodal science learning environments are discussed.