What drives household income among smallholder livestock farming households? Evidence from communal farming systems in South Africa

Abstract

Household income is a key indicator of rural welfare and livelihood sustainability among smallholder livestock farming households. This study examined the determinants of household income using survey data collected from communal livestock farmers in South Africa. A multiple linear regression model was employed to assess the influence of demographic, socio-economic, and livestock-related factors on household income. Age, household size, and employment status significantly and positively influenced household income, whereas gender, education, farming experience, and livestock holdings were not statistically significant. Employment status emerged as the strongest determinant, highlighting the importance of diversified livelihood strategies that combine livestock production with wage employment and self-employment. The findings support the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework by demonstrating that household welfare is influenced more by the interaction of human and financial capital than by livestock assets alone. Although livestock remains an important livelihood resource, its economic contribution depends on broader livelihood opportunities and market participation. The study concludes that policies aimed at improving rural household welfare should move beyond increasing livestock ownership to promote livestock commercialisation, rural employment, youth participation, and livelihood diversification. These findings contribute to the growing literature on rural livelihoods and provide evidence to inform integrated rural development policies that seek to enhance household income, resilience, and sustainable agricultural development among South Africa’s smallholder livestock farming households.