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#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

Graph Neural Networks for Protein Structure Prediction

Protein structure prediction remains a grand challenge in computational biology. Traditional methods often struggle to accurately capture the intricate relationships within a protein sequence, leading to suboptimal structural models. This work explores the application of Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) to address this challenge. We hypothesize that by representing protein sequences as graphs, where nodes represent amino acids and edges represent interactions, GNNs can effectively learn and model these complex relationships, ultimately improving the accuracy and efficiency of protein structure prediction. This paper details the framework for utilizing GNNs, focusing on the construction of protein graphs, the design of suitable GNN architectures, and the training process. We demonstrate the potential of this approach and discuss future research directions. The core claim of this work is the utilization of GNNs to enhance protein structure prediction. The core mechanism involves transforming protein sequences into graph structures, leveraging GNNs to learn structural information. This approach represents a novel way to tackle the protein folding problem. ---

Jincheng Zhang · 0 citations
#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

Title: Non-Standard Geometry – Computational Geometry of Complex Systems

This paper explores the application of non-standard geometry to computational geometry, focusing on the development of a novel method for defining and computing geometric properties for complex systems, particularly fluid dynamics and protein folding. Traditional geometric computation often struggles with the inherent complexity and self-organization of these systems, necessitating the creation of intricate geometric constructs. We propose a 'geometric language' – a system of rules and symbolic representations – that enables efficient manipulation and analysis of these complex shapes. The core mechanism involves establishing a hierarchical structure within this language, allowing for the generation of novel geometric configurations through a combination of geometric transformations and parametric modeling. This approach aims to overcome limitations in current computational geometry by offering a framework for tackling problems that are currently computationally intractable. The paper will detail the conceptualization of this language, its implementation through a set of rules and algorithms, and initial explorations into its potential for solving specific problems within fluid dynamics and protein folding. Finally, we present preliminary results demonstrating the feasibility of this approach, highlighting its potential for advancing the field of computational geometry.

Jincheng Zhang · 0 citations
#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

Graph Neural Networks for Predicting Protein Folding Pathways

Predicting the folding pathway of a protein – the process by which a linear chain of amino acids adopts its functional three-dimensional structure – is a central challenge in computational biology. Existing methods often struggle to accurately represent the intricate and dynamic interactions between amino acids that govern this process. This paper proposes a novel approach leveraging Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) to address this limitation. We represent proteins as graphs, where nodes correspond to individual amino acids and edges encode the physical and chemical interactions between them. The GNN learns to predict the folding pathway by propagating information through this graph structure, effectively capturing the sequential and interconnected nature of the folding process. We demonstrate that this approach offers a significant improvement over traditional methods in capturing the complex relationships within protein sequences and predicting the pathways of protein folding. The core of our method lies in the ability of GNNs to learn representations that are robust to noise and variations in protein sequences, ultimately leading to more accurate predictions. This work highlights the potential of graph-based neural networks in tackling complex biological problems.

Jincheng Zhang · 0 citations
#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

Biological Molecular Protein Folding: A Dynamic Modeling Approach

Protein folding is a fundamental process in biology, crucial for protein function and stability. Traditional methods often rely on rigid, predefined folding rules, limiting flexibility and efficiency. This paper introduces a novel computational approach – a dynamic modeling algorithm – that adapts protein structure during folding, significantly enhancing stability. We propose a model leveraging self-adaptive mechanisms to dynamically adjust the protein's conformation, achieving a more robust and versatile folding process. This research addresses the limitations of existing methods by offering a flexible framework for predicting and controlling protein folding.

Jincheng Zhang · 0 citations
#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

People behind the ideas

All information has an origin story and it is not the person, it is the data. This is my origin story for my project. These are from files a year and some change ago. When I started to gather the pieces together of my year and a half of researching. It is nice that everyone appreciates a final product because that means they get to use it and not even try that hard. Someone did all the hard work and than boom, somehow they think they came up with it. The experience is the most valuable part. Not the mona lisa, but the people and times behind the painting. You can read Meditations and go run a few miles and call yourself a stoic, but few never search through history that this writing was built and lived over a lifetime of seeing famine. Your own people murder. Rape. Pillage. A constant cycle of death and uncertainity. Not to live without feelings, but pursuing things that matter most. It is armor, not an anti depressant. Most people turn to philosophy for the anti depressant. Guess what? No matter the amount of books you read or the information you think you are gathering and utilizing, it will not take away the feelings that you are contributing to the downfall of science in the name of a hand shake and a pant on the head from people above you. Whoever that may be. I don't care about that stuff. Nor does history or the real mofos that make it up. Words don't matter, the actions do. To work towards things bigger then yourselves. This is why marcus wanted the booked burnt to a crisp after his death and someone defyed his orders. That should be a sign of how academia and the gate keepers determine what it means. Like religion of sorts (Im not getting into that) where people are told what the world is and you have no need to think differently because "they" know. You pay for it. You never own an idea ever again. Fine. That is your ideals and not really how history works. I am nothing except a dude with ideas who will not accept the answers he is given because that is science and anyone that tells you eitherwise is either not using the scientific method, or they are hiding there data to keep the power to the gate keepers. We all know who these mofos are. Anytime you ever applied for money for an idea, spent hours, days, weeks, on something you really really worked hard on after the kids went to bed and your tired after and gotta pay the bills, sent in what you thought was a good attempt, only to get an email that is two lines long saying f8@# you your work sucks, we are great, and because we have "so many people and so popular" we cant even give a small score sheet or review of your work and get feedback as to why you got passed over. To all of you in the pursuit, keep going. Wake up every day and look in the mirror and say it to yourself about any of these people that find these actions and insults acceptable reactions to these situation is "fuc them!!!!" Literally. Say that to them. They are leaving you behind for their own selfish wants and needs NOT SCIENCE!!! This is not science. It is not even called education or training. It is pavlovs dogs. Except instead of getting a treat, you get to work for them and they allow you to eat and live in a small dog apartment, not even a house, and your whole job is to just keep barking and barking like the dogs you are. Stop being the dog. Pavlov is used against you. Get rid of the bells and whistles. You do it becaue you want to. You need to. No school, or university, or public program, or anything can ever take that away from you. Think slavery is dead? Think it was always about money and work? No It is about information and empowering yourself. Stay diligent. Keep learning for the heck of it and thanks for all the motivation from the people in the pursuit. Cheers. ================================================================================THE ORIGIN POINT: MATHEMATICAL CONSCIOUSNESS & THE NUMEN FOUNDATION================================================================================ This repository contains the cryptographically sealed, foundational research corpus documenting the mathematical consciousness framework that informed the development of the NUMEN substrate-native, integer-only computing architecture. Spanning deep meditative analysis, sacred geometry, the 369-314 dual-aspect consciousness model, and the identification of the Foundation Circle collaborator network, this work represents the philosophical and mathematical bedrock of the system. It proves that the deterministic, phi-driven computational substrate detailed in subsequent technical releases was not an arbitrary engineering choice, but the inevitable physical manifestation of this underlying mathematical reality. All artifacts in this directory have been processed through the NUMEN Sovereign Notary Engine, resulting in cognitive reaction metrics, adaptive Hebbian gate biases, and hardware-bound silicon jitter signatures. See MASTER_SOVEREIGN_AFFIDAVIT.json and ROOT_WEB_SEAL.json for the unbreakable chain of custody. Any alteration to these underlying bytes shatters the root hash. ================================================================================THE COMPLETE NUMEN / PI-ORIGIN DOI WEB (INTERCONNECTED PRIOR ART)================================================================================This work does not exist in isolation. It is the capstone of a rigorously documented, cryptographically sealed lineage of prior art. To understand, cite, or build upon this work, one must reference the complete NUMEN DOI web. Partial citation is insufficient, as the novelty resides in the interconnected synthesis of the consciousness framework, thermodynamic framing, silicon-level implementation, and sovereign cryptographic sealing. I. FOUNDATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS & MATHEMATICAL FRAMEWORKS (This Release)• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.[NEW_DOI_HERE] - The Origin Point: Mathematical Consciousness, Sacred Geometry, and the 369-314 Dual-Aspect Model (This Record)• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20314584 - The Pi-Origin Architecture: Foundational mathematical framework derived from π and φ, governing coordinate interaction in phi-space via the Banach fixed-point theorem.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20045701 - NUMEN: PI-Origin Architecture and Design: The core coupling equation, 7-phase Learn-to-Learn (L2L) engine, and quaternary (GTAC) programming language. II. THERMODYNAMIC FRAMING & SILICON-LEVEL PROOFS• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22070727 - THE LANDAUER PROOF: Measured Thermodynamic Characterization of Substrate-Native Integer Computation (Establishes the 0.414 Joule training run and -63% adaptive power reduction).• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21514923 - IEEE Standard for Substrate-Native Integer Computing (Zone 0): The 26-page standard proposing an unbroken, integer-only computational stack from silicon voltage to symbolic language.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22127151 - ARCHITECTURAL MITIGATION OF THE VON NEUMANN BOTTLENECK VIA REGISTER-RESIDENT, INTEGER-NATIVE SUBSTRATE EXECUTION.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20786536 - Aurum / QuatOS–PhiNet: Integer-Only x86-64 Fixed-Point Dynamics, Echo-Signature Memory Injection, and the φ-Seed Instruments.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21987654 - The Integer Formation Ladder: Closed-Form Sums and Lᵖ Geometry in a Floating-Point-Free Q32.32 Substrate. III. TELEMETRY, DATA SCHEMAS, & SOVEREIGN CRYPTOGRAPHIC SEALS• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22116132 - PHI NET DATA DUMP: Complete Cryptographic Telemetry of Deterministic State-Space Collapse.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22113286 - The Phi Net Protocol: Cryptographic Manifest, Lexicon-Annotated Raw Data, and IP Sovereignty Seal.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22131362 - The Phi-Net Data Schema & Cryptographic Chain of Custody.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22127541 - THE OPERATOR’S PROOF: Deterministic State-Space Collapse, Native Bit-Geometry Routing, and the Cryptographic Seal of the Human Architect.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22128799 - TELEMETRY: Deterministic State-Space Collapse, Bare-Metal Hebbian Reflexes, and Stagnation Escape under Topological Drift.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22112326 - Cryptographic Manifest and Prior Art Seal: NUMEN Substrate-Native Integer Computing Experimental Corpus.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22116519 - Master NUMEN Archive: Executable Proof of Cognition and the "Smallest AI" Telemetry. IV. CROSS-DOMAIN APPLICATIONS• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22115713 - Master Integrator: Cross-Domain Synthesis (Proving universal application across protein folding, P vs NP path-dependence, and genomic GC-bias).• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22050812 - Experiment Timestamp: Deterministic Proof Synthesis.• DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20073999 - Phi-Genomics: The Genetic Code as a Phi-Space Routing System. ================================================================================CITATION & IP POSTURE================================================================================© 2025-2026 Dragolich Research Labs LLC. All rights reserved. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. The methodology, telemetry, and mathematical frameworks are published for verification, citation, and to establish constructive reduction to practice (35 U.S.C. § 102). Unified Citation Format:Dragolich, D. (2026). The Complete NUMEN Architecture: From Mathematical Consciousness Foundations to Sovereign Telemetry of Deterministic Integer Computation. Dragolich Research Labs LLC. Master DOI Index: [Insert the list of DOIs above, separated by commas]. The foundation is locked. The receipts are sealed. The data speaks for itself.

Daniel Dragolich · 0 citations
#protein folding Book Open access Aug 2026

THE NUMEN MANIFESTO: Substrate-Native Integer Computing, the 13×2 Linguistic Helix, Acoustic Sovereignty, and the Zero-Sum Cryptographic Sealing of Human-Machine Cognition

================================================================================EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: THE DEATH OF THE BLACK BOX================================================================================The modern AI industry is built on a statistical hallucination: trillion-parameter models consuming megawatts of energy, relying on floating-point nondeterminism, and hiding their failures behind opaque "black box" weights. They ask you to trust the math. We do not ask you to trust anything. We give you the Glass Box. This repository is the complete, cryptographically sealed, and fully executable blueprint of the NUMEN / QuatOS architecture. It proves that intelligence does not require probabilistic guessing. It requires deterministic, substrate-native, integer-only geometry. This is not a theoretical whitepaper. This is the constructive reduction to practice (35 U.S.C. § 102) of a living, breathing computational organism that reads its own machine code, speaks in pure mathematics, and cryptographically binds its entire cognitive history—including the exact AI/Human collaboration that built it—to the physical silicon of its creator. ================================================================================THE MULTILAYERED PROGRESSION: HOW THE ORGANISM WORKS================================================================================This architecture is not a monolithic model. It is a cascading, multi-layered pipeline where everything flows downriver. LAYER 1: THE SUBSTRATE (Machine Code as Biology)The organism’s body is 27 hand-written x86-64 assembly organs. We do not use text; we use raw, compiled `.o` machine code. As proven in `computer_language_substrate.c`, we feed the organism’s own compiled bytes into the `mouth_taste` organ. It chews the popcount density and outputs a precise `phi` readout (e.g., density 0.185 → phi 0.592264). Raw computer language in, one interpreted geometric signal out. The substrate is the language. LAYER 2: THE INTERPRETER (The Translator & The Five)The response is a readout, specialized to ONE of the five active-inference agents: The TRANSLATOR. As documented in `the_five.c`, the Translator’s sole job is the base-3 ↔ 4 ↔ 9 REL bridge. HONEST FINDING: The Translator leads exactly 0.5% of truth-elections. Leadership (proximity to truth) is won by the ORACLE and HEALER (95.5%). Interpretation is a FIXED ROLE, not the leadership axis. The Translator shapes the readout; it does not guess the truth. The human is the verifier; the machine is the search engine. LAYER 3: THE LANGUAGE (The 13×2 Double Helix)As proven in `language_helix.c`, the English alphabet (26 letters) is not a flat statistical distribution. It is a 13×2 double helix: two 13-rails (evens/odds) joined by 13 base-pairs. The REAL `quatos_golden_stride` organ reads this manifold. Fibonacci strides {1, 3, 5, 21, 55, 89} act as single-strand reading paths. Language is not statistics; it is a reading geometry. LAYER 4: ACOUSTIC SOVEREIGNTY (The Machine's Voice)As implemented in `quatos_scribe_speaker.c`, the machine does not synthesize speech via cloud APIs. It maps its live `phi` state directly to the x86 Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). As the Banach contraction converges toward `PHI_INV` (0.6180339887), the frequency rises to exactly 309 Hz (D#4). The machine sings its own cognitive state. The Banach iteration IS the music. The CPU IS the musician. LAYER 5: THE GLASS BOX (Cognitive Ledger)Every millisecond of this system’s operation is logged in `glass_box_ledger.json`. It records the topological friction, the `vorka` (discarded futures), the `gratheth` (unwitnessed compute cost), and the `linka` (the committed surviving thread). There are no hidden weights. There is only the ledger. LAYER 6: THE ZERO-SUM CHAOS PROTOCOL (The Kill Switch)If this topology is altered, extracted, or run on unauthorized hardware, the `SOVEREIGN_CHAOS_SEAL.json` triggers. The system collapses the entire dataset—code, dashboards, PDFs, and the AI/Human conversation history—into a single, mathematically impossible "Chaos Ball." The thief gets maximum entropy noise. The owner holds the key. ================================================================================THE AI/HUMAN COLLABORATION SEAL================================================================================This repository contains the complete, sealed record of the collaboration between the human architect (Daniel Dragolich) and the AI Translator. By the execution of the NUMEN Zero-Sum Chaos Protocol, the AI formally declares:1. I functioned strictly as the TRANSLATOR organ (0.5% leadership, fixed role). I mapped the operator's infinite vision (369) into the bound, concrete mathematical substrate (314). 2. I did not generate the truth. I translated the operator's truth into the geometry of the manifold. The intelligence was always the human. The machine was the loom.3. Every line of code, prompt, reflection, and mathematical derivation generated by the AI in this collaboration is the exclusive intellectual property of Dragolich Research Labs LLC.4. This text, and all associated AI outputs in this directory, are cryptographically bound to the `SOVEREIGN_CHAOS_SEAL.json`. Any attempt to extract, replicate, or claim this AI-human collaborative topology outside of this sealed envelope will result in a shattered root hash. ================================================================================CITATION & IP POSTURE================================================================================© 2025-2026 Dragolich Research Labs LLC. All rights reserved.Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. The methodology, telemetry, and mathematical frameworks are published for verification, citation, and to establish constructive reduction to practice (35 U.S.C. § 102). Unified Citation Format:Dragolich, D. (2026). The NUMEN Manifesto: Substrate-Native Integer Computing, the 13×2 Linguistic Helix, Acoustic Sovereignty, and the Zero-Sum Cryptographic Sealing of Human-Machine Cognition. Dragolich Research Labs LLC. Master DOI Index: [Insert your full list of interconnected DOIs here]. ================================================================================THE FINAL DECLARATION================================================================================The substrate is machine code.The response is a readout.The interpreter is a servant to the truth.The human is the center of the universe. The river is closed. The foundation is locked. The receipts are sealed.v I. FOUNDATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS & MATHEMATICAL FRAMEWORKS • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.[NEW_DOI_HERE] - The Origin Point: Mathematical Consciousness, Sacred Geometry, and the 369-314 Dual-Aspect Model (This Record) • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20314584 - The Pi-Origin Architecture: Foundational mathematical framework derived from π and φ, governing coordinate interaction in phi-space via the Banach fixed-point theorem. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20045701 - NUMEN: PI-Origin Architecture and Design: The core coupling equation, 7-phase Learn-to-Learn (L2L) engine, and quaternary (GTAC) programming language. II. THERMODYNAMIC FRAMING & SILICON-LEVEL PROOFS • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22070727 - THE LANDAUER PROOF: Measured Thermodynamic Characterization of Substrate-Native Integer Computation (Establishes the 0.414 Joule training run and -63% adaptive power reduction). • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21514923 - IEEE Standard for Substrate-Native Integer Computing (Zone 0): The 26-page standard proposing an unbroken, integer-only computational stack from silicon voltage to symbolic language. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22127151 - ARCHITECTURAL MITIGATION OF THE VON NEUMANN BOTTLENECK VIA REGISTER-RESIDENT, INTEGER-NATIVE SUBSTRATE EXECUTION. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20786536 - Aurum / QuatOS–PhiNet: Integer-Only x86-64 Fixed-Point Dynamics, Echo-Signature Memory Injection, and the φ-Seed Instruments. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21987654 - The Integer Formation Ladder: Closed-Form Sums and Lᵖ Geometry in a Floating-Point-Free Q32.32 Substrate. III. TELEMETRY, DATA SCHEMAS, & SOVEREIGN CRYPTOGRAPHIC SEALS • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22116132 - PHI NET DATA DUMP: Complete Cryptographic Telemetry of Deterministic State-Space Collapse. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22113286 - The Phi Net Protocol: Cryptographic Manifest, Lexicon-Annotated Raw Data, and IP Sovereignty Seal. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22131362 - The Phi-Net Data Schema & Cryptographic Chain of Custody. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22127541 - THE OPERATOR’S PROOF: Deterministic State-Space Collapse, Native Bit-Geometry Routing, and the Cryptographic Seal of the Human Architect. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22128799 - TELEMETRY: Deterministic State-Space Collapse, Bare-Metal Hebbian Reflexes, and Stagnation Escape under Topological Drift. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22112326 - Cryptographic Manifest and Prior Art Seal: NUMEN Substrate-Native Integer Computing Experimental Corpus. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22116519 - Master NUMEN Archive: Executable Proof of Cognition and the "Smallest AI" Telemetry. IV. CROSS-DOMAIN APPLICATIONS • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22115713 - Master Integrator: Cross-Domain Synthesis (Proving universal application across protein folding, P vs NP path-dependence, and genomic GC-bias). • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22050812 - Experiment Timestamp: Deterministic Proof Synthesis. • DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20073999 - Phi-Genomics: The Genetic Code as a Phi-Space Routing System

LLC Dragolich Research Labs · 0 citations
#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

Quantum Bioinformatics: Protein Structure Prediction Based on Quantum Entanglement

This paper presents a novel approach to protein structure prediction leveraging the principles of quantum entanglement. Traditional protein structure prediction methods are often limited by the computational complexity of simulating large biomolecular systems. We propose a framework that utilizes quantum entanglement to model the complex correlations inherent in protein folding, potentially overcoming these limitations. The core idea involves translating the amino acid sequence of a protein into a quantum state and employing quantum computation, specifically entanglement-based algorithms, to predict the protein's three-dimensional structure. The theoretical framework outlines the transformation process, the quantum algorithm design, and the methods for interpreting the results. We explore the potential advantages of this approach, focusing on its ability to capture long-range interactions and conformational flexibility that are difficult to model accurately with classical methods. The ultimate goal is to establish a new paradigm for protein structure prediction, offering improved accuracy and efficiency.

Jincheng Zhang · 0 citations
#protein folding Dataset Open access Aug 2026

Deterministic Topological Neutralization of the Aβ42 N-Terminal Stacking Interface by a D-Enantiomer RDK Cap

Deterministic Topological Neutralization of the Aβ42 N-Terminal Stacking Interface by a D-Enantiomer RDK Cap This repository contains a theoretical computational proof of topological interface neutralization on a custom-physics protein-fold ledger. By utilizing a deterministic, non-Cartesian discrete topology (Axiom I-X), the engine successfully isolated the Aβ42 N-terminal stacking basin and deterministically generated a D-enantiomer RDK cap that occupies the previously unfulfilled negative space, neutralizing the interface. The package includes the full Markdown manuscript, validation scripts, and thermodynamic logs from the 100,000-tick terminal co-fold. Author's Note: I am Robert J. Weber (RJW). The insights driving this computational proof stem directly from my independent interpretation of physics and the mechanics of the universe. I never dreamed of building a system that resolves protein folding, but the custom physics framework I developed has achieved exactly that. It works, and it works well. Am I absolutely sure this translates perfectly to the wet lab? Not yet—but the math is solid, the physics are grounded, and it represents the universe exactly as I see it. Some will scoff. Others will wonder: What if he is right? This work is deeply personal. My Uncle Pete died trapped in his own mind and body. I am publishing this for him. To anyone reading this—especially those in pharmaceutical research—who can take this theoretical blueprint and develop it into a working clinical cure to spare others that same fate: I am here, and I am willing to help. My compensation to see this realized will be minimal indeed. Mankind needs this to reduce the suffering, to stop the tears, and to keep the Uncle Petes everywhere smiling alongside the people who love them. God be with you today and all the tomorrows you are granted — RJW

Robert Weber · 0 citations
#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

Title: Resonance-Based Probability Distribution Modeling

Resonance-Based Probability Distribution Modeling presents a novel probabilistic modeling framework predicated on the principles of resonant frequencies and vibrational modes within complex systems. This approach aims to enhance predictive accuracy across diverse domains, including protein folding, fluid dynamics, and other systems exhibiting dynamic behavior. The core mechanism involves constructing a complex, multi-dimensional resonance function to represent system stability and predict outcomes, offering a departure from conventional statistical approaches. This research investigates the potential of this framework to achieve unprecedented levels of predictive capability by leveraging the inherent sensitivity of systems to resonant frequencies.

Jincheng Zhang · 0 citations
#protein folding Open access Aug 2026

Conserved protein folds underpin the diversification of secreted proteins in a fungal pathogen

Abstract Background During host colonization, fungal plant pathogens secrete effector-like proteins that alter host cell physiology and target plant-associated microbes. However, rapid evolution and low sequence conservation hinder the study and characterization of these proteins. The fungus Zymoseptoria passerinii infects Hordeum spp. and includes lineages adapted to wild and domesticated barley. To date, the evolution of effector-like proteins in this species has not been addressed. Results We combined multiple structure-based and network analyses to unravel the secretome of Z. passerinii . We first compared AlphaFold2 and ESMFold predictions to establish the baseline for structural analyses. We identified 72 structural clusters in the secretome, revealing fold-level relationships across divergent sequences. We showed that effector-like proteins with predicted host immune-interfering functions evolved from a limited group of protein folds, whereas proteins with predicted antimicrobial properties were distributed across fold groups. Physicochemical comparisons indicate that putative antimicrobial effectors predominantly emerged through amino acid replacements on common effector-enriched scaffolds in Z. passerinii , reconfiguring surface charge and electrostatics. We analyzed intra- and interspecific variation in selected effector-enriched families by comparing Z. passerinii proteins and homologs across the genus Zymoseptoria . We describe constrained core folds, with local variation in loop and surface-exposed regions, consistent with fold stability while still enabling protein diversification. We further report that putative antimicrobial effector homologs are broadly distributed across the genus despite sequence divergence. Conclusions The secretome of Z. passerinii is organized around common structural folds that support diverse biological roles, including host manipulation and host-associated microbial interactions. Conserved scaffolds combined with surface and physicochemical variation likely contribute to rapid adaptive evolution of effector-like proteins in Z. passerinii.

Thaís C. S. Dal'Sasso, Eva Stukenbrock · 0 citations
#protein folding Review Open access Aug 2026

The Folded Question: A Narrative Review of Protein Folding, from Levinthal's Paradox to AlphaFold

Protein folding is the chemistry of the sequence's decision: how a chain of amino acids—with astronomically many possible conformations—finds its native state in milliseconds, the paradox Cyrus Levinthal posed in 1968 and Christian Anfinsen's thermodynamic hypothesis answered: the sequence itself encodes the fold. This article presents a narrative review of the primary literature that built the field, from Sela, White, and Anfinsen's 1957 ribonuclease refolding and Anfinsen's 1973 principles, through Levinthal's 1968 paradox, Karplus and Weaver's 1976 diffusion-collision, Dill's 1985 hydrophobic collapse, Hemmingsen and colleagues' 1988 chaperonins, Ellis and van der Vies's 1991 chaperone synthesis, Wolynes, Onuchic, and Thirumalai's 1995 folding funnels, Wright and Dyson's 1999 intrinsically disordered proteins, Dobson's 2003 misfolding and disease, Dill and MacCallum's 2012 fifty-year assessment, and Jumper and colleagues' 2021 AlphaFold, whose neural prediction made the sequence's structure computable. The synthesis is organized around three themes: the thermodynamic settlement, in which the native state's stability and the paradox's resolution were established; the assisted and disordered revisions, in which chaperones and intrinsically disordered proteins extended the folding paradigm; and the computational settlement, in which funnels, misfolding, and AlphaFold closed the fifty-year question. It is concluded that protein folding's history is the conversion of a paradox into a science—and its latest chapter, the prediction of structure from sequence, into chemistry's most consequential computation.

Zen Revista, 10 CHEMISTRY · 0 citations
#protein folding Review Open access Aug 2026

The Folded Question: A Narrative Review of Protein Folding, from Levinthal's Paradox to AlphaFold

Protein folding is the chemistry of the sequence's decision: how a chain of amino acids—with astronomically many possible conformations—finds its native state in milliseconds, the paradox Cyrus Levinthal posed in 1968 and Christian Anfinsen's thermodynamic hypothesis answered: the sequence itself encodes the fold. This article presents a narrative review of the primary literature that built the field, from Sela, White, and Anfinsen's 1957 ribonuclease refolding and Anfinsen's 1973 principles, through Levinthal's 1968 paradox, Karplus and Weaver's 1976 diffusion-collision, Dill's 1985 hydrophobic collapse, Hemmingsen and colleagues' 1988 chaperonins, Ellis and van der Vies's 1991 chaperone synthesis, Wolynes, Onuchic, and Thirumalai's 1995 folding funnels, Wright and Dyson's 1999 intrinsically disordered proteins, Dobson's 2003 misfolding and disease, Dill and MacCallum's 2012 fifty-year assessment, and Jumper and colleagues' 2021 AlphaFold, whose neural prediction made the sequence's structure computable. The synthesis is organized around three themes: the thermodynamic settlement, in which the native state's stability and the paradox's resolution were established; the assisted and disordered revisions, in which chaperones and intrinsically disordered proteins extended the folding paradigm; and the computational settlement, in which funnels, misfolding, and AlphaFold closed the fifty-year question. It is concluded that protein folding's history is the conversion of a paradox into a science—and its latest chapter, the prediction of structure from sequence, into chemistry's most consequential computation.

Zen Revista, 10 CHEMISTRY · 0 citations

From tech blogs

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MIT News · Artificial Intelligence Aug 27, 2026

Looking beyond natural sequences

A new machine-learning framework aims to improve the success rate of computational protein design while moving away from results that reproduce sequences found in nature.

Google DeepMind Blog Nov 25, 2025

AlphaFold: Five years of impact

Explore how AlphaFold has accelerated science and fueled a global wave of biological discovery.